Biology subjects

Wangpraseurt, D.

Publications and source records attributed to Wangpraseurt, D..

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

bioRxiv2026

Coral Guard substrates accelerate growth and fragment fusion for coral restoration

Coral reefs are declining globally, creating an urgent need for scalable technologies that improve the efficiency and effectiveness of active reef restoration. Coral reef restoration is increasingly constrained by algal overgrowth, which suppresses coral growth, survival, and restoration efficiency. Building on the recently developed Coral Guard platform, we evaluate its restoration performance under long-term in situ coral nursery conditions and introduce Fusion Guard Tiles, a geometry-optimized Coral Guard design that accelerates microfragment fusion. We evaluated Coral Guard Plugs using the branching coral Stylophora pistillata under complementary ex situ conditions and Fusion Guard Tiles using the massive reef-building coral Porites evermanni in in situ coral nurseries. In P. evermanni, Fusion Guard Tiles increased lateral tissue growth 2.6-fold and three-dimensional tissue surface area growth by >2.7-fold after 6 months compared with conventional substrates. After 12 months, colony height and volume were approximately 4.0-fold and 2.2-fold greater, respectively, while complete fragment fusion occurred only on Fusion Guard Tiles. In S. pistillata, Coral Guard Plugs increased lateral tissue growth by [~]1.7-fold. Microcomputed tomography revealed 10-13% higher skeletal density in both species. In P. evermanni, Fusion Guard Tiles also increased symbiont density by 70% and tissue protein content by [~]2.5-fold relative to controls. Together, these findings demonstrate that Coral Guard substrates suppress algal competition while accelerating coral growth, skeletal development, and microfragment fusion, providing a scalable, low-maintenance technology to enhance coral nursery productivity and reef restoration.

bioengineering↗

bioRxiv2026

Coral settlement module designs for scalable reef restoration

The global coral reef crisis has prompted restoration initiatives worldwide. Targeting the coral larval stage is among the most scalable approaches as recruitment operates over large spatial scales. It thus represents one of the best levers for coral population recovery. Active coral larval seeding has shown considerable success, and passive substrate engineering has emerged as a promising complementary strategy. Coral settlement modules featuring helix recesses have increased settlement and survival by up to 80-fold on small experimental units, but whether these results translate to tools deployable at the scale of thousands of units, remains yet an open question. Here, we transferred structural features from successful experimental coral settlement designs into production-ready concrete modules to (i) evaluate coral recruitment on five designs at four reef sites differing in flow regime and coral cover over one year; (ii) compare production-scale performance against experimental clay modules and natural reef substrate; and (iii) identify key parameters for large-scale production. The helix recess geometry of coral settlement modules outperformed the featureless control design approximately 20-fold and exceeded natural reef recruitment at least 3- to 32-fold. The helix features were successfully transferred from experimental clay to production-scale concrete modules, yielding comparable settlement densities when standardized to crevice length, which proved to be the biologically relevant unit of available habitat. Production feasibility was demonstrated by producing 690 modules for deployment on a hybrid reef on the west side of Oahu, Hawaii. The passive coral larval recruitment approach presented here could substantially improve the logistical and economic feasibility of large-scale coral reef restoration. This approach requires neither coral larval rearing, handling, nor coral fragmenting, and is compatible with active larval seeding where genetic diversity or larvae supply are limiting factors. The coral settlement modules can be cast in standardized concrete molds at precast facilities. Modules have demonstrated consistent coral recruitment enhancement across reef environments with contrasting flow and coral cover. Deploying mixed arrays of helix-recess structures with designs offering multi-level complexity and three-dimensional rugosity maximizes outcomes for coral, fish, and invertebrate communities simultaneously. Site selection is the most critical deployment decision and should consider larval supply, hydrodynamics, and substrate stability which drive recruitment outcomes more than design choice alone. The modules offer a range of application potential, ranging from integration into existing coastal infrastructure over stand-alone reef restoration approaches, to substrate-consolidating interconnected arrangements.

ecology↗

bioRxiv2026

Intracellular photonic crystals in photosynthetic sea slugs form via a kidney-mediated biomineralisation pathway

Sea slugs in the Sacoglossa superorder are some of the few animals capable of photosynthesising by isolating and maintaining functional chloroplasts within their body1,2. While this ability allows some species in this superorder, such as Elysia viridis, to appear green, camouflaging themselves within their surroundings3,4, this species is marked by extremely bright, coloured regions. Here, we show that these animals produce a yet undiscovered class of photonic structure consisting of intracellular mixed amorphous CaCO3 and calcite spherical nanoparticles organised in non-closed-packed face-centred cubic (FCC) lattices and photonic glasses5. By mapping the distribution of the cells containing such architectures, we suggest that their colour is linked both to their function and to their biological formation via the animals renal system. Using a combination of different optical methods and cryo-electron microscopy, we reveal that the biomineralisation pathway proceeds through stages of calcium ion concentration in the kidney, transport via internal vessels, and precipitation from a dense liquid-like precursor, culminating in the formation of monodisperse nanoparticles, which are the building blocks of these photonic structures.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2025

Subcellular assessment of algal carbon storage and chloroplasts across the microenvironmental landscape of a photosymbiotic coral

Light availability plays a central role in shaping the photophysiology and energy metabolism of photosymbiotic organisms such as reef-building corals. Although light varies greatly within coral colonies, the effects of this spatial heterogeneity on the subcellular organization and energy storage of symbiotic algae (Symbiodiniaceae) remain poorly understood. Here, we combined microscale measurements of light and oxygen across both light-exposed upper regions and shaded basal regions of a Favites abdita colony with three-dimensional subcellular imaging using Focused Ion Beam Scanning Electron Microscopy (FIB-SEM). Our multi-scale approach revealed subcellular heterogeneity among symbiont populations, suggesting different cell cycle stages and physiological states across a spatial stratification in the coral. Subcellular morphometrics revealed that symbiont cells at the top of the colony were twice more voluminous than those at the shaded base with similar plastid volume occupancy. Compared to symbionts at the top of the colony, symbionts in the basal region accumulated nearly three times more starch relative to their cell volume. These findings show that light gradients within coral colonies shape symbiont morphology and energy storage patterns, with important implications for coral stress tolerance and resilience.

cell biology↗

bioRxiv2024

Bacteria-powered living materials enable coral larval settlement

The global decline of coral reefs calls for new strategies to rapidly restock coral populations and maintain ecosystem functions and services. Low recruitment success on degraded reefs hampers coral sexual propagation and contributes to limited genetic diversity and reef resilience. Here, we introduce a living bacteria-powered reef ink (Brink) for assisted coral recruitment. Brink can be rapidly applied to restoration substrates via photopolymerization, and it has been formulated to cultivate two settlement-inducing bacterial strains (Cellulophaga lytica and Thalassotalea euphylliae). Settlement assays performed with broadcast spawning (Montipora capitata) and brooding (Pocillopora acuta) Indo-Pacific corals showed that Brink-coated substrates increased settlement >5-fold compared to uncoated control substrates. Brink can be applied as a coating or 3D bioprinted, leading to various potential applications for integration with reef engineering. Our approach underscores the potential of using functional living materials for augmented ecosystem engineering and reef rehabilitation. SynopsisThis study introduces a functional and sustainable bacteria-powered living material that enhances coral settlement, promoting coral reef rehabilitation and ecosystem resilience.

bioengineering↗

bioRxiv2024

Advancing coral micropropagation for coral restoration and reef engineering

In the face of escalating threats posed by human-induced climate change, urgent attention to coral reef restoration is imperative due to ongoing reef degradation. Here, we explored the potential of generating coral micropropagates as a tool to rapidly generate coral tissue for reef restoration and reef engineering. We developed a hypersalinity-induced polyp bailout protocol and a simple attachment device to support the growth of micropropagates on commonly used restoration substrates. We found that hypersalinity induction, at a rate of < 1 ppt hr-1, produced healthy micropropagates of the coral Stylophora pistillata. The highest attachment success ([~]74%) was achieved in CaCO3 substrate devices, which outperformed PVC ([~]5%) and Portland cement ([~]48%). Settled micropropagates displayed rapid growth rates on both CaCO3 (0.037 mm2/day {+/-} 0.002 SE) and PVC (0.057 mm2/day {+/-} 0.008 SE) substrates, while Portland cement induced tissue degradation. Our study provides a detailed methodology for reliably generating, attaching, and growing coral micropropagates and underscores the potential of polyp bailout as a viable technique supporting coral restoration and reef engineering efforts.

physiology↗

bioRxiv2023

Light management by algal aggregates in living photosynthetic hydrogels.

Rapid progress in algal biotechnology has triggered a growing interest in hydrogel-encapsulated microalgal cultivation, especially for the engineering of functional photosynthetic materials and biomass production. An overlooked characteristic of gel-encapsulated cultures is the emergence of cell aggregates, which are the result of the mechanical confinement of the cells. Such aggregates have a dramatic effect on the light management of gel-encapsulated photobioreactors and hence strongly affect the photosynthetic outcome. In order to evaluate such an effect, we experimentally studied the optical response of hydrogels containing algal aggregates and developed optical simulations to study the resultant light intensity profiles. The simulations are validated experimentally via transmittance measurements using an integrating sphere and aggregate volume analysis with confocal microscopy. Specifically, the heterogeneous distribution of cell aggregates in a gel matrix can increase light penetration while alleviating photoinhibition compared to a flat biofilm. Finally, we demonstrate that light harvesting efficiency can be further enhanced with the introduction of scattering particles within the hydrogel matrix, leading to a four-fold increase in biomass growth. Our study, therefore, highlights a new strategy for the design of spatially efficient photosynthetic living materials that have important implications for the engineering of future algal cultivation systems. Significance StatementThe ability to cultivate microalgae at scale efficiently would allow more sustainable production of food and food additives. However, efficient growth of microalgae requires optimised light conditions, which are usually challenging to obtain using biofilm cultivations mode: as the outer layer of cells are necessarily more exposed to incoming light than the inner layer, posing the problem of photoinhibition on the outer cells receiving too much light, and shading the ones below. Here we study both experimentally and numerically, how microalgae aggregates growing in the confinement of a hydrogel can provide an improved light distribution and therefore biomass growth is maximised. This study proposes new strategies on how to engineer future photobioreactors.

plant biology↗

bioRxiv2023

Phenotypically Complex Living Materials Containing Engineered Cyanobacteria

A cyanobacterial photosynthetic biocomposite material was fabricated using 3D-printing and bioengineered to produce multiple functional outputs in response to an external chemical stimulus. Our investigations show the advantages of utilizing additive manufacturing techniques in controlling the design and shape of the fabricated materials, which proved to be important for the support and growth of obligate phototrophic microorganisms within the material. As an initial proof-of-concept, a synthetic theophylline-responsive riboswitch in Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 was used for regulating the expression of a yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) reporter. Upon induction with theophylline, the encapsulated cells produced YFP within the hydrogel matrix. Subsequently, a strain of S. elongatus was engineered to produce an oxidative enzyme that is useful for bioremediation, laccase, expressed either constitutively or under the control of the riboswitch. The responsive biomaterial can decolorize a common textile dye pollutant, indigo carmine, potentially serving as a useful tool in environmental bioremediation. Finally, cells were engineered to have the capacity for inducible cell death to eliminate their presence once their activity is no longer required, which is an important function for biocontainment and minimizing unintended environmental impact. By integrating genetically engineered stimuli-responsive cyanobacteria in patterned volumetric 3D-printed designs, we demonstrate the potential of programmable photosynthetic biocomposite materials capable of producing functional outputs including, but not limited to, bioremediation.

bioengineering↗

bioRxiv2021

Green fluorescent protein-like pigments optimize the internal light environment in symbiotic reef building corals

Pigments homologous to the Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) have been proposed to fine-tune the internal light microclimate of corals, facilitating photoacclimation of photosynthetic coral symbionts (Symbiodiniaceae) to life in different reef habitats and environmental conditions. However, direct measurements of the in vivo light conditions inside the coral tissue supporting this conclusion are lacking. Here, we quantified the intra-tissue spectral light environment of corals expressing GFP-like proteins from widely different light regimes. We focus on (1) photoconvertible red fluorescent proteins (pcRFPs), thought to enhance photosynthesis in mesophotic habitats via wavelength conversion, and (2) chromoproteins (CPs), which provide photoprotection to the symbionts in shallow water via light absorption. Optical microsensor measurements indicated that both pigment groups strongly alter the coral tissue light environment. Estimates derived from light spectra measured in pcRFP-containing corals showed that fluorescence emission can contribute to >50% of orange-red light available to the photosynthetic symbionts at mesophotic depths. We further show that upregulation of pink CPs in shallow-water corals during bleaching leads to a reduction of orange light by 10-20% compared to low-CP tissue. Thus, screening by CPs has an important role in mitigating the light-enhancing effect of coral tissue scattering during bleaching. Our results provide the first experimental quantification of the importance of GFP-like proteins in fine-tuning the light microclimate of corals during photoacclimation.

ecology↗

bioRxiv2021

Characterization of morpho-functional traits in mesophotic corals reveals optimized light capture and photosynthesis

The morphology and skeleton architecture of photosynthetic corals modulates the light capture and functioning of the coral-algal symbiosis on shallow-water corals. Since corals can thrive on mesophotic reefs under extreme light-limited conditions, we hypothesized that microskeletal coral features optimize light capture under low-light environments. Using micro-computed tomography scanning, we conducted a comprehensive three-dimensional (3D) assessment of small-scale skeleton morphology of the depth-generalist coral Stylophora pistillata collected from shallow (5 m) and mesophotic (45 m) depths. We detected a high phenotypic diversity between depths, resulting in two distinct morphotypes, with calyx diameter, theca height, and corallite marginal spacing contributing to most of the variation between depths. To determine whether such depth-specific morphotypes affect coral light capture and photosynthesis on the corallite-scale, we developed 3D simulations of light propagation based on photosynthesis-irradiance parameters. We found that corals associated with shallow morphotypes dissipated excess light through self-shading microskeletal features; while mesophotic morphotypes facilitated enhanced light absorption and photosynthesis under low-light conditions. We conclude that the mesophotic coral architecture provides a greater ability to trap solar energy and efficiently exploit the limited light conditions, and suggest that morphological modifications play a key role in the photoadaptation response to low-light.

ecology↗

bioRxiv2021

Synthetic algal-bacteria consortia for space-efficient microalgal growth in a simple hydrogel system

Photosynthetic microalgae are an attractive source of food, fuel or nutraceuticals, but commercial production of microalgae is limited by low spatial efficiency. In the present study, we developed a simple photosynthetic hydrogel system that cultivates the green microalga, Marinichlorella kaistiae KAS603, together with a novel strain of the bacteria Erythrobacter sp.. We tested the performance of the co-culture in the hydrogel using a combination of chlorophyll-a fluorimetry, microsensing and bio-optical measurements. Our results showed that growth rates in algal-bacterial hydrogels were about 3-fold enhanced compared to hydrogels with algae alone. Chlorophyll-a fluorimetry based light curves found that electron transport rates were enhanced about 20% for algal-bacterial hydrogels compared to algal hydrogels for intermediate irradiance levels. We also show that the living hydrogel is stable under different environmental conditions and when exposed to natural seawater. Our study provides a potential bio-inspired solution for problems that limit the space-efficient cultivation of microalgae for biotechnological applications.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2020

Cytoklepty in the plankton: a host strategy to optimize the bioenergetic machinery of endosymbiotic algae

Endosymbioses have shaped the evolutionary trajectory of life and remain widespread and ecologically important. Investigating modern oceanic photosymbioses can illuminate how algal endosymbionts are energetically exploited by their heterotrophic hosts, and inform on putative initial steps of plastid acquisition in eukaryotes. By combining 3D subcellular imaging with photophysiology, carbon flux imaging and transcriptomics, we show that cell division of algal endosymbionts (Phaeocystis) is blocked within hosts (Acantharia), and that their cellular architecture and bioenergetic machinery are radically altered. Transcriptional evidence indicates that a nutrient-independent mechanism prevents symbiont cell division and decouples nuclear and plastid division. As endosymbiont plastids proliferate, the volume of the photosynthetic machinery volume increases 100-fold in correlation with expansion of a reticular mitochondrial network in close proximity to plastids. Photosynthetic efficiency tends to increase with cell size and photon propagation modeling indicates that the networked mitochondrial architecture enhances light capture. This is accompanied by 150-fold higher carbon uptake and upregulation of genes involved in photosynthesis and carbon fixation, which, in conjunction with a ca.15-fold size increase of pyrenoids demonstrates enhanced primary production in symbiosis. NanoSIMS analysis revealed major carbon allocation to plastids and transfer to the host cell. Invagination of the symbiosome into endosymbionts to optimize metabolic exchanges is strong evidence that the algal metamorphosis is irreversible. Hosts therefore trigger and unambiguously benefit from major bioenergetic remodeling of symbiotic microalgae with important consequences for the oceanic carbon cycle. Unlike other photosymbioses, this interaction represents a so-called cytoklepty, which is a putative initial step towards plastid acquisition.

physiology↗

bioRxiv2020

Light-harvesting in mesophotic corals is powered by a spatially efficient photosymbiotic system between coral host and microalgae

The coral-algal photosymbiosis fuels global coral-reef primary productivity, extending from sea level to as deep as 150 m (i.e., mesophotic). Currently, it is largely unknown how such mesophotic reefs thrive despite extremely limited light conditions. Here, we show that corals exhibit a plastic response to mesophotic conditions that involves a spatially optimized regulation of the bio-optical properties by coral host and symbiont. In contrast to shallow corals, mesophotic corals absorbed up to three-fold more light, resulting in excellent photosynthetic response under light conditions of only ~3% of the incident surface irradiance. The enhanced light harvesting capacity of mesophotic corals is regulated by average refractive index fluctuations in the coral skeleton that give rise to optical scattering and facilitate light transport and absorption by densely pigmented host tissue. The results of this study provide fundamental insight into the energy efficiency and light-harvesting mechanisms underlying the productivity of mesophotic coral reef ecosystems, yet also raise concerns regarding their ability to withstand prolonged environmental disturbances.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2019

Bionic 3D printed corals

Symbiotic corals have evolved as a highly optimised photon augmentation system leading to space-efficient microalgal growth and photosynthetic quantum efficiencies that approach theoretical limits1-3. Corals are characterized by an elastic animal tissue hosting microalgae and a light scattering calcium carbonate skeleton that maximizes light delivery towards otherwise shaded algal-containing tissues4,5. Rapid light attenuation due to algal self-shading is a key limiting factor for the upscaling of microalgal cultivation6,7. Coral-inspired light management systems could overcome this limitation and facilitate scalable bioenergy and bioproduct generation8,9. Here, we developed 3D printed bionic corals capable of growing various types of microalgae with cell densities approaching 109 cells mL-1, up to 100 times greater than in liquid culture. The hybrid photosynthetic biomaterials are produced with a new 3D bioprinting platform which mimics morphological features of living coral tissue and the underlying skeleton with micron resolution, including their optical and mechanical properties. The programmable synthetic microenvironment thus allows for replicating both structural and functional traits of the coral-algal symbiosis. Our work defines a new class of bionic materials capable of interacting with living organisms, that can be exploited for the design of next generation photobioreactors7 and disruptive approaches for coral reef conservation10.

bioengineering↗

bioRxiv2019

Optical properties of living corals determined with diffuse reflectance spectroscopy

The internal light field and thus light exposure of the photosymbiotic microalgae (Symbiodinium sp.) in corals is strongly modulated by the optical properties of coral tissue and skeleton. While there are numerous studies documenting the light microenvironment in corals, there are only few measurements of the inherent optical properties of corals in the literature, and this has hampered a more quantitative understanding of coral optics. Here we present a study of the optical properties of 26 live coral samples, representative of 11 coral species and spanning a variety of morphotypes. We employed well-established fiber-optic reflectance spectroscopy techniques from biomedical optics using two methods: (1) A source and a detection fiber separated by a variable distance measured the lateral spread of light in corals, dominated by the skeleton; (2) A fiber-optic field radiance probe measured the diffuse reflectance from the coral surface, dominated by the living coral tissue. Analysis based on diffusion theory and Monte Carlo simulation yielded estimates of the bulk scattering and absorption coefficients of the coral tissue and skeleton, in the 750-1030 nm wavelength range. Extrapolating into the spectral region of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR, 400-700 nm) allowed estimation of the optical depth of absorption by the main Symbiodinium photopigment chlorophyll a. Coral tissue scattering was on average ~1.9x stronger than the scattering of the skeleton, consistent with the model that corals trap photons by high scattering to enhance absorption by algal pigments, while the lower scattering of the skeleton allows spread of light to otherwise shaded coral tissue areas.

plant biology↗

bioRxiv2018

Bio-optical properties and radiative energy budgets in fed and starved scleractinian corals (Pocillopora damicornis) during thermal bleaching

Corals achieve outstanding photosynthetic quantum efficiencies approaching theoretical limits (i.e. 0.125 O2 photon-1) and it is unknown how such photosynthetic efficiency varies with environmental stress. In this study, we investigated the combined effects of thermal stress and active feeding on the radiative energy budget and photosynthetic efficiency of the symbiont-bearing coral Pocillopora damicornis by using fiber-optic and electrochemical microsensors in combination with variable chlorophyll fluorescence imaging. At normal temperature (25{degrees}C), the percentage of absorbed light energy used for photosynthesis was higher for fed (~5-6% under low light exposure) compared to unfed corals (4%). Corals from both feeding treatments responded equally to stress from high light exposure (2400 mol photons m-2 s-1), exhibiting a decrease in photosynthetic energy efficiency down to 0.5-0.6%. Fed corals showed increased resilience against thermal bleaching compared to unfed corals, as fed corals were able to uphold their high photosynthetic energy efficiency for 5 days longer during thermal stress, as compared to unfed corals, which decreased their photosynthetic energy efficiency almost immediately when exposed to thermal stress. We conclude that active feeding is beneficial to corals by prolonging coral health and resilience during thermal stress as a result of an overall healthier symbiont population.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2018

Effect of feeding and thermal stress on photosynthesis, respiration and the carbon budget of the scleractinian coral Pocillopora damicornis

Studying carbon dynamics in the coral holobiont provides essential knowledge of nutritional strategies and is thus central to understanding coral ecophysiology. In this study, the first aim was to investigate the effect of daily feeding and thermal stress on oxygen (O2) rates measured at polyp-scale with microsensors and at whole fragment scale using incubation methods. The second aim was to assess the carbon budget of the symbiotic association using H13CO3, under the different conditions. Micro- and macro-scale measurements revealed enhanced O2 evolution rates for fed compared to unfed corals. However, gross O2 production in fed corals was increased at high temperature on a macroscale but not on a microscale basis, likely due to a heterogeneous distribution of photosynthesis over the coral surface. Starved corals always exhibited reduced photosynthetic activity at high temperature, which suggests that the nutritional status of the coral host is a key limiting factor for coral productivity under thermal stress. Quantification of photosynthate translocation and carbon budgets showed very low incorporation rates, for both symbionts and host (0.03 - 0.6 g C cm-2 h-1) equivalent to only 0.008 - 0.6 %, of the photosynthetically fixed carbon for P. damicornis, in all treatments. Carbon loss (via respiration and/or mucus release) was about 41 - 47 % and 52 - 76% of the fixed carbon for starved and fed corals, respectively. Such high loss of translocated carbon suggests that P. damicornis is nitrogen and/or phosphorus limited. Heterotrophy might thus cover a larger portion of the nutritional demand for P. damicornis than previously assumed. Our results suggest that active feeding plays a fundamental role in metabolic dynamics and bleaching susceptibility of corals.

ecology↗

bioRxiv2018

Microscale light management and inherent optical properties of intact corals studied with optical coherence tomography

Coral reefs are highly productive photosynthetic systems and coral optics studies suggest that such high efficiency is due to optimised light scattering by coral tissue and skeleton. Here, we characterise the inherent optical properties, i.e., the scattering coefficient, s, and the anisotropy of scattering, g, of 8 intact coral species using optical coherence tomography (OCT). Specifically, we describe light scattering by coral skeletons, coenoarc tissues, polyp tentacles and areas covered by fluorescent pigments (FP). Our results reveal that light scattering between coral species ranges from s = 3 mm-1 (Stylophora pistillata) to s= 25 mm-1 (Echinopora lamelosa). For Platygyra pini, s was 10-fold higher for tissue vs skeleton, while in other corals (e.g. Hydnophora pilosa) no difference was found between tissue and skeletal scattering. Tissue scattering was 3-fold enhanced in coenosarc tissues (s = 24.6 mm-1) vs polyp tentacles (s = 8.3 mm-1) in Turbinaria reniformis. FP scattering was almost isotropic when FP were organized in granule chromatophores (g=0.34) but was forward directed when FP were distributed diffusely in the tissue (g=0.96). Our study provides detailed measurements of coral scattering and establishes a rapid approach for characterising optical properties of photosynthetic soft tissues via OCT in vivo.

biophysics↗