Biology subjects

Bonetti, L.

Publications and source records attributed to Bonetti, L..

At least 37 records · Page 2Linked to original sources

bioRxiv2024

Working memory predicts long-term recognition of auditory sequences: Dissociation between confirmed predictions and prediction errors

Memory is a crucial cognitive process involving several subsystems: sensory memory (SM), short-term memory (STM), working memory (WM), and long-term memory (LTM). While each has been extensively studied, the interaction between WM and LTM, particularly in relation to predicting temporal sequences, remains largely unexplored. This study investigates the relationship between WM and LTM, and how these relate to aging and musical training. Using three datasets with a total of 244 healthy volunteers across various age groups, we examined the impact of WM on LTM recognition of novel and previously memorized musical sequences. Our results show that WM abilities are significantly related to recognition of novel sequences, with a more pronounced effect in older compared to younger adults. In contrast, WM did not similarly impact the recognition of memorized sequences, which implies that different cognitive processes are involved in handling prediction errors compared to confirmatory predictions, and that WM contributes to these processes differently. Additionally, our findings confirm that musical training enhances memory performance. Future research should extend our investigation to populations with cognitive impairments and explore the underlying neural substrates.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2024

FREQuency-resolved brain Network Estimation via Source Separation (FREQ-NESS)

The brain is a dynamic system whose network organization is often studied by focusing on specific frequency bands or anatomical regions, leading to fragmented insights, or by employing complex and elaborate methods that hinder straightforward interpretations. To address this issue, a new analytical pipeline named FREQuency-resolved Network Estimation via Source Separation (FREQ-NESS) is introduced. This is designed to estimate the activation and spatial configuration of simultaneous brain networks across frequencies by analyzing the frequency-resolved multivariate covariance between whole-brain voxel time series. FREQ-NESS is applied to source-reconstructed magnetoencephalography (MEG) data during resting state and isochronous auditory stimulation. Results reveal simultaneous, frequency-specific brain networks during resting state, such as the default mode, alpha-band, and motor-beta networks. During auditory stimulation, FREQ-NESS detects: (1) emergence of networks attuned to the stimulation frequency, (2) spatial reorganization of existing networks, such as alpha-band networks shifting from occipital to sensorimotor areas, (3) stability of networks unaffected by auditory stimuli. Furthermore, auditory stimulation significantly enhances cross-frequency coupling, with the phase of attuned auditory networks modulating the gamma band amplitude of medial temporal lobe networks. In conclusion, FREQ-NESS effectively maps the brains spatiotemporal dynamics, providing a comprehensive view of brain function by revealing simultaneous, frequency-resolved networks and their interaction.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2024

Decoding the elite soccer players psychological profile

Soccer is arguably the most widely followed sport worldwide, and many dream of becoming soccer players. However, only a few manage to achieve this dream, which has cast a significant spotlight on elite soccer players who possess exceptional skills to rise above the rest. Originally, such attention was focused on their great physical abilities. However, recently, it a new perspective has emerged, suggesting that being an elite soccer player require a deep understanding of the game, rapid information processing and decision-making. This growing attention has led to several studies suggesting higher executive functions in soccer players compared to the general population. Unfortunately, these studies often had small and non-elite samples, focusing mainly on executive functions alone without employing advanced machine learning techniques. In this study, we used artificial neural networks to comprehensively investigate the personality traits and cognitive abilities of a sample of 328 participants, including 204 elite soccer players from the top teams in Brazil and Sweden. Our findings indicate that elite soccer players demonstrate heightened planning and memory capacities, enhanced executive functions, especially cognitive flexibility, elevated levels of conscientiousness, extraversion, and openness to experience, coupled with reduced neuroticism and agreeableness. This research provides insights into the psychology of elite soccer players, holding significance for talent identification, development strategies in soccer and offering insights into the psychological profiles associated with success. Significance statementThis study explores the psychological profiles of elite soccer players, revealing that success on the field goes beyond physical ability. By analysing a sample of 328 participants, including 204 elite soccer players from the top teams in Brazil and Sweden, we found that elite players have exceptional cognitive abilities, including improved planning, memory, and decision-making skills. They also possess personality traits like high conscientiousness and openness, along with reduced neuroticism. Using artificial intelligence, we identified unique psychological patterns that could help in talent identification and development. These insights can be used to better understand the mental attributes that contribute to success in soccer and other high-performance fields.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2024

The neurophysiology of healthy and pathological aging: A comprehensive systematic review

As the population of older adults grows, so does the prevalence of neurocognitive disorders such as mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia. While biochemical, genetic, and neuroimaging biomarkers have accelerated early detection and diagnosis, neurophysiological measures are absent from daily medical use. Electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) are two non-invasive techniques that measure neurophysiological signals in the brain and convey information about signal strength at different frequency bands, event-related activity, signal complexity, and temporal correlation between spatially remote brain regions. Here we conducted a pre-registered, comprehensive systematic review of 942 studies using EEG, MEG, and combined MEG and EEG to characterise the neurophysiology of healthy aging, MCI, and dementia under resting-state and task conditions. To complement our search, we also reviewed 51 past reviews in the field. Relevant features of these papers were extracted to present a detailed overview of the current state of evidence. Overall, neurophysiological measures show great promise as diagnostic tools and could prove invaluable in predicting healthy and pathological aging trajectories. However, to reach this potential in clinical practice, it is crucial to adopt longitudinal designs, standardise methodologies, and identify biomarkers at the individual rather than group level.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2024

Multilevel irreversibility reveals higher-order organisation of non-equilibrium interactions in human brain dynamics

Information processing in the human brain can be modelled as a complex dynamical system operating out of equilibrium with multiple regions interacting nonlinearly. Yet, despite extensive study of the global level of non-equilibrium in the brain, quantifying the irreversibility of interactions among brain regions at multiple levels remains an unresolved challenge. Here, we present the Directed Multiplex Visibility Graph Irreversibility framework, a method for analysing neural recordings using network analysis of time-series. Our approach constructs directed multi-layer graphs from multivariate time-series where information about irreversibility can be decoded from the marginal degree distributions across the layers, which each represents a variable. This framework is able to quantify the irreversibility of every interaction in the complex system. Applying the method to magnetoencephalography recordings during a long-term memory recognition task, we quantify the multivariate irreversibility of interactions between brain regions and identify the combinations of regions which showed higher levels of non-equilibrium in their interactions. For individual regions, we find higher irreversibility in cognitive versus sensorial brain regions whilst for pairs, strong relationships are uncovered between cognitive and sensorial pairs in the same hemisphere. For triplets and quadruplets, the most non-equilibrium interactions are between cognitive-sensorial pairs alongside medial regions. Finally, for quintuplets, our analysis finds higher irreversibility when the prefrontal cortex is included in the interaction. Combining these results, we show that multilevel irreversibility offers unique insights into the higher-order, hierarchical organisation of neural dynamics and presents a new perspective on the analysis of brain network dynamics.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2024

Ageing impacts basic auditory and timing processing

Deterioration in the peripheral and central auditory systems is common in older adults and often leads to hearing and speech comprehension difficulties. Even when hearing remains intact, electrophysiological data of older adults frequently exhibit altered neural responses along the auditory pathway, reflected in variability in phase alignment of neural activity to speech sound onsets. However, it remains unclear whether these challenges in speech processing in aging stem from more fundamental deficits in auditory and timing processes. Here, we investigated if and how aging individuals encoded temporal regularities in isochronous auditory sequences presented at 1.5Hz, and if they employed adaptive mechanisms of neural phase alignment in anticipation of next sound onsets. We recorded EEG in older and young individuals listening to simple isochronous tone sequences. We show that aging individuals displayed increased amplitudes and variability in time-locked responses to sounds, an increased 1/F slope, but reduced phase-coherence in the delta and theta frequency-bands. These observations suggest a lack of repetition-suppression and inhibition when processing repeated and predictable sounds in a sequence and altered mechanisms of continuous phase-alignment to expected sound onsets in aging. Given that deteriorations in these basic timing capacities may affect other higher-order cognitive processes (e.g., attention, perception, and action), these results underscore the need for future research examining the link between basic timing abilities and general cognition across the lifespan. HighligthsO_LIAging individuals (HO) show increased cortical excitability as compared to younger adults (HY); C_LIO_LIHOs neural responses to fully predictable isochronous tones were larger and more variable than HY; C_LIO_LIHO showed reduced phase coherence in delta- and theta-band oscillations during listening to auditory sequence; C_LIO_LIAltogether, these results show altered sensory and timing processes in aging. C_LI

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2023

Neurophysiological correlates of short-term recognition of sounds: Insights from magnetoencephalography

Understanding the brains dynamic retrieval and updating of encoded information is a key focus in memory research. This study employed a same versus different auditory paradigm to investigate short-term auditory recognition within a predictive coding (PC) framework, concerning the perceptual interplay between experience-informed predictions and incoming sensory information. Using magnetoencephalography (MEG), we captured the neurophysiological correlates associated with a single-sound, short-term memory task. Twenty-six healthy participants were tasked with recognizing whether presented sounds were same or different compared to strings of standard stimuli. To prompt conscious memory retention, a white noise interlude separated these sounds from the standards. MEG sensor-level results revealed that recognition of same sounds elicited two significantly stronger negative components of the event-related field compared to different sounds. The first one was the N1, peaking 100ms post-sound onset, while the second one corresponded to a slower negative component arising between 300 and 600ms after sound onset. This effect was observed in several significant clusters of MEG sensors, especially temporal and parietal regions of the scalp. Conversely, different sounds produced scattered and smaller clusters of stronger activity than same sounds, peaking later than 600ms after sound onset. Source reconstruction using beamforming algorithms revealed the involvement of auditory cortices, hippocampus, and cingulate gyrus in both conditions. Overall, the results are coherent with PC principles and previous results on the brain mechanisms underlying auditory recognition, highlighting the relevance of early and later negative brain responses for successful prediction of previously listened sounds in the context of conscious short-term memory.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2023

Decoding reveals the neural representation of held and manipulate musical thoughts

Vividly imagining a song or a melody is a skill that many people accomplish with relatively little effort. However, we are only beginning to understand how the brain represents, holds, and manipulates these musical "thoughts". Here, we decoded perceived and imagined melodies from magnetoencephalography (MEG) brain data (N = 71) to characterize their neural representation. We found that, during perception, auditory regions represent the sensory properties of individual sounds. In contrast, a widespread network including fronto-parietal cortex, hippocampus, basal nuclei, and sensorimotor regions hold the melody as an abstract unit during both perception and imagination. Furthermore, the mental manipulation of a melody systematically changes its neural representation, reflecting volitional control of auditory images. Our work sheds light on the nature and dynamics of auditory representations, informing future research on neural decoding of auditory imagination.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2023

Challenging age-related decline in brain function: Evidence from fast neuroimaging of musical sequence recognition

Aging is often associated with decline in brain processing power and neural predictive capabilities. To challenge this notion, we used the excellent temporal resolution of magnetoencephalography (MEG) to record the whole-brain activity of 39 older adults (over 60 years old) and 37 young adults (aged 18-25 years) during recognition of previously memorised and novel musical sequences. Our results demonstrate that independent of behavioural measures, older compared to young adults showed increased rapid auditory cortex responses (around 100 and 250 ms after each tone of the sequence) and decreased later responses (around 250 and 350 ms) in hippocampus, ventromedial prefrontal cortex and inferior frontal gyrus. Working memory abilities were associated with stronger brain activity for both young and older adults. Our findings unpick the complexity of the healthy aging brain, showing age-related neural transformations in predictive and memory processes and challenging simplistic notions that non-pathological aging merely diminishes neural predictive capabilities.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2023

A Th17 cell-intrinsic glutathione/mitochondrial-IL-22 axis protects against intestinal inflammation

Although the intestinal tract is a major site of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, the mechanisms by which antioxidant defense in gut T cells contribute to intestinal homeostasis are currently unknown. Here we show, using T cell-specific ablation of the catalytic subunit of glutamate cysteine ligase (Gclc), that the ensuing loss of glutathione (GSH) impairs the production of gut-protective IL-22 by Th17 cells within the lamina propria. Although Gclc ablation does not affect T cell cytokine secretion in the gut of mice at steady-state, infection with C. rodentium increases ROS, inhibits mitochondrial gene expression and mitochondrial function in Gclc-deficient Th17 cells. These mitochondrial deficits affect the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway, leading to reduced phosphorylation of the translation repressor 4E-BP1. As a consequence, the initiation of translation is restricted, resulting in decreased protein synthesis of IL-22. Loss of IL-22 results in poor bacterial clearance, enhanced intestinal damage, and high mortality. ROS-scavenging, reconstitution of IL-22 expression or IL-22 supplementation in vivo prevent the appearance of these pathologies. Our results demonstrate the existence of a previously unappreciated role for Th17 cell-intrinsic GSH coupling to promote mitochondrial function, IL-22 translation and signaling. These data reveal an axis that is essential for maintaining the integrity of the intestinal barrier and protecting it from damage caused by gastrointestinal infection. Executive summary- GSH-regulated Th17 cell-derived IL-22, but not IL-17 is required to maintain intestinal barrier integrity and to revent lethality following C. rodentium infection. - GCLC expression in IBD patients correlates positively with expression of genes related to gut integrity. - Gclc-deficient Th17 cells accumulate mitochondrial ROS, which is linked to impaired mitochondrial function, ysregulated PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling and impaired translation of IL-22. - ROS-scavenging, IL-22 reconstitution or T cell-specific expression of IL-22 in Gclc-deficient T cells rescues utant mice from the lethal infection outcome in vivo.

immunology↗

bioRxiv2023

Decreased inter-hemispheric connectivity predicts a coherent retrieval of auditory symbolic material in a laboratory model of cultural transmission

Investigating the transmission of information between individuals is essential to understand how human culture evolved. Coherent information transmission (i.e., transmission without significant modifications or loss of fidelity) helps preserving cultural traits and traditions over time, while innovation may lead to new cultural variants. Although much research has focused on the cognitive mechanisms underlying cultural transmission, little is known on the brain underpinnings of coherent transmission of information. To address this gap, we combined a laboratory model of cultural transmission, the signalling games, with structural (from high-resolution diffusion imaging) and functional connectivity (from resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging [fMRI]). We found that individuals who exhibited more coherence in the transmission of the information were characterized by lower levels of both structural and functional inter-hemispheric connectivity. Specifically, higher coherence negatively correlated with the strength of bilateral structural connections between frontal and subcortical, insular and temporal brain regions. Similarly, we observed increased inter-hemispheric functional connectivity between inferior frontal brain regions derived from structural connectivity analysis in individuals who exhibited lower transmission coherence. Our results suggest that inter-hemispheric connections may bwe detrimental for preserving coherence in information transmission, while a certain degree of lateralization in the brain may be required.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2023

Hierarchical syntax models of music predict theta power during music listening

Linguistic research showed that the depth of syntactic embedding is reflected in brain theta power. Here, we test whether this also extends to non-linguistic stimuli, specifically music. We used a hierarchical model of musical syntax to continuously quantify two types of expert-annotated harmonic dependencies throughout a piece of Western classical music: prolongation and preparation. Prolongations can roughly be understood as a musical analogue to linguistic coordination between constituents that share the same function (e.g., pizza and pasta in I ate pizza and pasta). Preparation refers to the dependency between two harmonies whereby the first implies a resolution towards the second (e.g., dominant towards tonic; similar to how the adjective implies the presence of a noun in I like spicy...). Source reconstructed MEG data of sixty-eight participants listening to the musical piece was then analysed. We used Bayesian Mixed Effects models to predict theta envelope in the brain, using the number of open prolongation and preparation dependencies as predictors whilst controlling for audio envelope. We observed that prolongation and preparation both carry independent and distinguishable predictive value for theta band fluctuation in key linguistic areas such as the Angular, Supramarginal, Superior Temporal and Heschls Gyri, or their right-lateralised homologues, with preparation showing additional predictive value for areas associated with the reward system and prediction. Musical expertise further mediated these effects in language-related brain areas. Results show that predictions of precisely formalised music-theoretical models are reflected in the brain activity of listeners.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2023

The major-minor mode dichotomy in music perception: A systematic review on its behavioural, physiological, and clinical correlates

Since ancient Greece, major and minor modes in Western tonal music have been identified as the primary responsible musical feature for eliciting emotional states. As such, the underlying correlates of the major-minor mode dichotomy in music perception have been extensively investigated through decades of psychological and neuroscientific research, providing plentiful yet often discordant results. Specifically, crucial questions remain about the several factors contributing to the affective perception of major and minor modes, at times very different among individuals. Moreover, major and minor mode perception has never been quantitatively compared in literature. This comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to provide a qualitative and quantitative synthesis of musical mode perception and its behavioural and neural correlates. The qualitative synthesis resulted in 69 studies, showing great diversity in how the major-minor dichotomy has been empirically approached. Most studies reviewed were conducted on adults, considered participants expertise, employed real-life musical stimuli, performed behavioural evaluations, and were carried out among Western listeners. Behavioural, electroencephalography, and neuroimaging meta-analyses (36 studies) consistently showed that major and minor mode elicit distinct neural and emotional responses. Based on our findings, a framework to describe a Major-Minor Mode(l) of music perception and its behavioural and physiological correlates is proposed, incorporating individual factors such as age, expertise, cultural background, and emotional disorders. Limitations, implications, and suggestions for future research are discussed, including putative clinical applications of major-minor dichotomy and best practices regarding stimulation paradigms for musical mode investigation. Public Significance StatementThis study provides qualitative and quantitative evidence of the distinct behavioral and neural responses elicited by major and minor mode, while also highlighting the influence of factors such as age, culture, personality, and health. Results offers a detailed overview of the major-minor dichotomy in music, putting forward an integrated and critical discussion of methodologies, paradigms, and clinical implications of this pivotal musical feature.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2023

Age-related brain mechanisms underlying short-term recognition of musical sequences: An EEG study

Recognition is the ability to correctly identify previously learned information. It is an important part of declarative episodic memory and a vital cognitive function, which declines with ageing. Several studies investigated recognition of visual elements, complex images, spatial patterns, and musical melodies, focusing especially on automatic and long-term recognition. Here, we studied the impact of ageing on the event-related potentials using electroencephalography (EEG) associated with short-term recognition of auditory sequences. To this end, we recruited 54 participants, which were divided into two groups: (i) 29 young adults (20-30 years old), (ii) 25 older adults (60-80 years old). We presented two sequences with an interval of a few seconds. Participants were asked to state how similar the second sequence was with regards to the first one. The neural results indicated a stronger negative, widespread activity associated with the recognition of the same sequence compared to the sequences that were transposed or completely different. This difference was widely distributed across the EEG sensors and involved especially temporo-parietal areas of the scalp. Notably, we reported largely reduced neural responses for the older versus young adults, even when no behavioral differences were observed. In conclusion, our study suggests that the combination of auditory sequences, music, and fast-scale neurophysiology may represent a privileged solution to better understand short-term memory and the cognitive decline associated with ageing.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2022

Hierarchical whole-brain dynamics of auditory predictive coding at the fine-grained milliseconds level

Our brain is constantly extracting, predicting, and recognising key spatiotemporal features of the physical world in order to survive. While neural processing of visuospatial patterns has been extensively studied, the hierarchical brain mechanisms underlying conscious recognition of auditory sequences and the associated prediction errors remain elusive. Using magnetoencephalography (MEG), we studied the brain functioning of 83 participants during recognition of previously memorised musical sequences and systematic variations. The results showed feedforward connections originating from auditory cortices, and extending to the hippocampus, anterior cingulate gyrus, and medial cingulate gyrus. Simultaneously, we observed backward connections operating in the opposite direction. Throughout the sequences, the hippocampus and cingulate gyrus maintained the same hierarchical level, except for the final tone, where the cingulate gyrus assumed the top position within the hierarchy. The evoked responses of memorised sequences and variations engaged the same hierarchical brain network but systematically differed in terms of temporal dynamics, strength, and polarity. Furthermore, induced-response analysis showed that alpha and beta power was stronger for the variations, while gamma power was enhanced for the memorised sequences. This study expands on the predictive coding theory by providing quantitative evidence of hierarchical brain mechanisms during conscious memory and predictive processing of auditory sequences.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2022

Age and musical training effects on auditory short-term, long-term, and working memory

Cognitive aging is characterized by a gradual decline in cognitive functioning. One of the most worrying deficits for older adults is a decreased capacity to memorize and remember new information. In this study, we assessed auditory short-term memory (STM), long-term memory (LTM), and working memory (WM) abilities of young and older adults using musical and numerical tasks. Additionally, we measured musical training and tested whether this capacity influences memory performance. Regarding STM, young adults scored higher than older adults when making same/different judgements of rhythmic sequences, but their performance was alike for melodic sequences. Higher levels of musical training were associated with enhanced STM capacity for melodic sequences. In relation to LTM, young adults outperformed older adults in identifying new musical sequences. Moreover, younger and older individuals with high musical training outperformed those with low musical training. No group differences were found in the recognition of previously memorized musical sequences. Finally, we found no group differences in WM capacity, although there was a non-significant tendency for young adults to outperform older adults. Overall, we found that aging differently affects several types of auditory memory and that, for certain musical memory tasks, a higher level of musical training provides significant advantages.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2022

Associations between abstract working memory abilities and brain activity underlying long-term recognition of auditory sequences

Memory is a complex cognitive process comprised by several subsystems, namely short- and long-term memory and working memory (WM). Previous research has shown that adequate interaction between subsystems is crucial for successful memory processes such as encoding, storage and manipulation of information. However, few studies have investigated the relationship between different subsystems at the behavioral and neural levels. Thus, here we assessed the relationship between individual WM abilities and brain activity underlying the recognition of previously memorized auditory sequences. First, recognition of previously memorized versus novel auditory sequences was associated with a widespread network of brain areas comprising the cingulate gyrus, hippocampus, insula, inferior temporal cortex, frontal operculum, and orbitofrontal cortex. Second, we observed positive correlations between brain activity underlying auditory sequence recognition and WM. We showed a sustained positive correlation in the medial cingulate gyrus, a brain area which was widely involved in the auditory sequence recognition. Remarkably, we also observed positive correlations in the inferior temporal, temporal-fusiform, and postcentral gyri, brain areas which were not strongly associated to auditory sequence recognition. In conclusion, we discovered positive correlations between WM abilities and brain activity underlying long-term recognition of auditory sequences, providing new evidence on the relationship between memory subsystems. Furthermore, we showed that high WM performers recruited a larger brain network including areas associated to visual processing (i.e., inferior temporal, temporal-fusiform and postcentral gyri) for successful auditory memory recognition. Significance statementMemory is a complex cognitive process dependent on the successful interaction between its multiple subsystems. Here, we assessed the relationship between individual WM abilities and brain activity underlying the recognition of previously memorized auditory sequences. We observed positive correlations between brain activity underlying auditory sequence recognition and WM, especially in the medial cingulate gyrus, inferior temporal, temporal-fusiform and postcentral gyri. In this study, we provided new evidence on the relationship between two memory subsystems: WM and long-term auditory recognition. Moreover, we showed that, to successfully complete memory recognition tasks, high WM performers recruited a larger brain network which comprised brain areas mainly associated to visual processing, such as inferior temporal, temporal-fusiform and postcentral gyri.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2022

Whole-brain computation of cognitive versus acoustic errors in music

Previous studies have evidenced how the local prediction of physical stimulus features may affect the neural processing of incoming stimuli. Less known are the effects of cognitive priors on predictive processes, and how the brain computes local versus cognitive predictions and their errors. Here, we determined the differential brain mechanisms underlying prediction errors related to high-level, cognitive priors for melody (rhythm, contour) versus low-level, local acoustic priors (tuning, timbre). We measured with magnetoencephalography the mismatch negativity (MMN) prediction error signal in 104 adults having varying levels of musical expertise. We discovered that the brain regions involved in predictive processes for local priors were primary and secondary auditory cortex and insula, whereas cognitive brain regions such as cingulate and orbitofrontal cortices were recruited for melodic errors in cognitive priors. The involvement of higher-level brain regions for computing cognitive errors was enhanced in musicians, especially in cingulate cortex, inferior frontal gyri, and supplementary motor area. Overall, the findings expand knowledge on whole-brain mechanisms of predictive processing and the related MMN generators, previously mainly confined to the auditory cortex, to a frontal network that strictly depends on the type of priors that are to be computed by the brain.

neuroscience↗