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bioRxiv2024

Harmonising distributed tree inventory datasets across India can fill critical gaps in tropical ecology

AO_SCPLOWBSTRACTC_SCPLOWO_LIGlobal analyses of tree diversity and function are strongly biased geographically, with poor representation from forests of the Indian subcontinent. Even though data from India - representing two-thirds of the subcontinent and spanning a wide range of tree-based biomes - exists, a barrier to syntheses is the absence of accessible and standardised data. Further, with increasing human footprint across ecosystems, data from Indian landscapes, with their long history of human-nature interactions is a key link to understand the future of tropical forested landscapes. Given the long history of human-nature interactions and high human footprint in the region, accessible and standardized data from the subcontinent can enable understanding the future of tropical landscapes under increasing human footprints globally. C_LIO_LICombining literature searches with manual data retrieval, we assembled the INdia Tree Inventory dataset, INvenTree. INvenTree is the largest meta-dataset of peer-reviewed publications (n = 465) from 1991-2023 on geolocated plot-based tree inventories of multispecies communities from Indian ecosystems, in aggregate covering 4653.64 ha and all of its woody biomes. C_LIO_LIUsing INvenTree, we show extensive sampling across tropical moist and dry forests, the dominant ecosystem types in the country. However, most studies have low sampling effort (median sampled area = 2 ha) and data across studies is not openly accessible (73.33 % of studies representing 83.43% of the sampled area), potentially hindering inclusion into regional or global syntheses. C_LIO_LISignificantly, we show majority authorship from within the country; 82.8% of corresponding authors were from India and 73.33% of the studies had all authors affiliated with Indian institutions. We also identify ecological and conservation sampling priority regions based on forest cover and forest loss and set a blueprint for future sampling efforts in the country. C_LIO_LIBased on extensive Indian scholarship in forest ecology showcased through the INvenTree dataset, we see opportunity for regional collaboration to create scientific inferences that are larger and scalable, while prioritising data and knowledge equity. Harmonising these existing datasets, and synthesising historic and grey literature, will contribute enormously to understanding the human dimension of tropical ecology as well as informing regional management and conservation. C_LI

ecology↗
bioRxiv2024

Orchid mycorrhizal communities associated with Orchis italica are shaped by ecological factors and geographical gradients

AimThe influence of mutualists on plant distributions is only beginning to be understood. Orchids depend on orchid mycorrhizal (OrM) fungi to germinate, yet the distribution of OrM and how they vary according to both abiotic and biotic factors is unclear. We investigated the abundance and diversity of OrM communities associated with the Mediterranean orchid Orchis italica and quantified how they vary according to both geographical and ecological factors. LocationMediterranean Basin. TaxonOrchis italica Poir. (Orchidaceae) MethodsWe used metabarcoding of the ITS2 region to identify OrM fungi associated with adult individuals in 23 populations of O. italica across latitudinal and longitudinal gradients in the Mediterranean region. We used both multivariate analyses and Joint Species Distribution Models (JSDMs) based on geographical, climate, and soil variables to test how both common OrM fungi and their communities vary according to geographical and ecological factors. ResultsEighty OrM OTUs were found associating with O. italica. However, five Tulasnellaceae OTUs and one Ceratobasidiaceae OTU were found in every population. Abundance of these taxa, as measured by number of reads, increased from west to east and decreased from south to north, indicating OrM abundance may be determined by geographical gradients. OrM community composition varied according to precipitation, annual mean temperature, and soil phosphorous content. JSDMs revealed there were both positive and negative co-occurrences among these ubiquitous OrM. Main ConclusionsDespite associating with many OrM across its range, only six OrM were widespread, indicating that O. italica may be an apparent generalist in its association with OrM. Abundance of these OrM is determined by geographical gradients and ecological factors. This highlights the importance of quantifying the distribution of belowground mutualists in understanding the limits to plant distributions.

ecology↗
bioRxiv2024

Perceived and observed biases within scientific communities: a case study in movement ecology

Who conducts biological research, where, and how the results are disseminated varies among geographies and identities. Identifying and documenting these forms of bias by research communities is a critical first step towards addressing them. We documented perceived and observed biases in movement ecology. Movement ecology is a rapidly expanding sub-discipline of biology, which is strongly underpinned by fieldwork and technology use. First, we surveyed attendees of an international conference, and discussed the results at the conference (comparing uninformed vs informed perceived bias). Although most researchers identified as bias-aware, only a subset of biases were discussed in conversation. Next, by considering author affiliations from publications in the journal Movement Ecology, we found among-country discrepancies between the country of the authors affiliation and study site location related to national economics. At the within-country scale, we found that race-gender identities of postgraduate biology researchers in the USA differed from national demographics. We discuss the role of potential specific causes for the emergence of bias in the sub-discipline, e.g. parachute-science or accessibility to fieldwork. Undertaking data-driven analysis of bias within research sub-disciplines can help identify specific barriers and first steps towards the inclusion of a greater diversity of participants in the scientific process.

ecology↗
bioRxiv2024

Niche and spatial partitioning restrain ecological equivalence among microbes along aquatic redox gradient

Microbial metabolic capabilities and interactions shape their niche hypervolume that in turn governs their ecological strategies and ecosystem services. In the context of functional redundancy or ecological equivalence, the focus has been on functional guilds in order to bypass the complex challenge faced by niche theory for disentangling the niche hypervolume. However, in some cases this simplification has been at the expense of ignoring the role of individual genotype of each microbe within a functional guild and fails to explain how the diversity within each functional guild is maintained. In this study, we inspect the metabolic profile of metagenome-assembled genomes along the pronounced redox gradient of the water column in an anchialine cave. Bridging neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography and niche theory, our analysis uses focal metabolic capabilities while also incorporating individuality by looking into background metabolic capabilities of each individual and further includes spatial distribution of microbes to delineate their niche space. Our results emphasize that differences in background metabolic capabilities are critical for furnishing the niche hypervolume of microbes carrying the same focal metabolic capability and refute their ecological equivalence with their spatial distribution further enables niche partitioning among them.

ecology↗
bioRxiv2024

Rigorous (in)validation of ecological models

The complexity of ecosystems poses a formidable challenge for confidently invalidating ecological models, as current practices struggle to distinguish model inadequacies from the confounding effects of unobserved biotic or abiotic factors. The prevailing inability to falsify models has resulted in an accumulation of models but not an accumulation of confidence. Here, we introduce a new approach rooted in queueing theory, termed the covariance criteria, that establishes a rigorous test for model validity based on covariance relationships between observable quantities. These criteria set a high bar for models to pass by specifying necessary conditions that must hold regardless of unobserved factors. We demonstrate the broad applicability and discriminatory power of the covariance criteria by applying them to three long-standing challenges in ecological theory: resolving competing models of predator-prey functional responses, disentangling ecological and evolutionary dynamics in systems with rapid evolution, and detecting the often-elusive influence of higher-order species interactions. Across these diverse case studies, the covariance criteria consistently rule out inadequate models, while building strong confidence in those that provide strategically useful approximations. The covariance criteria approach is mathematically rigorous, computationally efficient, and often non-parametric, making it immediately applicable to existing data and models.

ecology↗
bioRxiv2024

On the structure of multiple stable equilibria in competitive ecological systems

For some ecological systems with a large pool of possible species, there can be multiple stable equilibria with different species composition. Natural or anthropogenic disruption can induce a shift between different such equilibria. While some work has been done on ecological systems with multiple equilibria, there is no general theory governing the distribution of equilibria or characterizing the basins of attraction of different equilibria. This article addresses these questions in a simple class of Lotka-Volterra models. We focus on competitive systems of species on a niche axis with multiple equilibria. We find that basins of attraction are generally larger for equilibria with greater biomass; in many cases, the basin of attraction size scales roughly exponentially with the net biomass of equilibria. This is illustrated in two ecologically relevant limits. In a continuous limit with species spaced arbitrarily closely on the niche axis, equilibria with different numbers of species provide new perspective on the notion of limiting similarity. In another limit, akin to a statistical mechanical model, the niche axis becomes infinite while the range of interactions remains fixed; in this limit we prove the exponential relation between basin size and biomass using the Markov chain central limit theorem.

ecology↗
bioRxiv2024

Interplay of structured and random interactions in many-species ecological dynamics

Minimal models for complex ecosystems often assume random interactions, whose statistics suffice to predict dynamical and macroecological patterns. However, ecological networks commonly possess a variety of properties, such as hierarchies or functional groups, that structure species interactions. Here, we ask how conclusions from random interaction models are altered by the presence of such community-level network structures. We consider a Lotka-Volterra model where pairwise species interactions combine structure and randomness, and study macroscopic community-level observables, abundance distributions and dynamical regimes. Randomness and structure combine in a surprisingly yet deceptively straightforward way: contributions from each component to community patterns are largely independent. Yet, their interplay has non-trivial consequences, notably out of equilibrium. We conclude that whether interaction structure matters depends on the pattern: when breaking species equivalence, static patterns of species presence and abundance predicted from random interaction models are less robust than the qualitative nature of dynamical regimes. Author summaryEcological communities with many species are a challenge for theoretical ecology, since they harbour many and very diverse interactions. A common approach is to focus on aggregated quantities, such as the abundance of broad taxonomic or functional groups, thus neglecting all the diversity at finer scales. We develop a theoretical framework that combines both ecological structure and fine-grained heterogeneity, which we represent with randomness. We find that structure and randomness contribute to ecosystem properties with effects that can be largely disentangled, allowing a continuous transition between two simple effective descriptions of the community dynamics. Still, they interact in unexpected ways. For instance, we show that species heterogeneity can simplify the dynamics of functional groups, countering the idea that complexity should always destabilize large ecosystems. Data availability statement: The source code used to produce the results and analyses presented in this manuscript is freely available at the GitHub repository: https://github.com/juanelogiral/interplay-structure-randomness.git

ecology↗
bioRxiv2024

Flowers that cool themselves: thermal ecology of summer-blooming thistles in hot Mediterranean environments

Flower exposure to high temperature reduces the production, viability and performance of pollen, ovules and seeds, which in turn reduces individual fecundity and risks the survival of populations. Autonomous flower cooling could help to alleviate exposure of pollen and ovules to harmful temperatures, yet investigations on the thermal ecology of flowers in hot environments are still needed to evaluate the frequency, magnitude and ecological significance of floral thermoregulatory cooling. This paper reports a study on the thermal ecology of flower heads (=capitula) of 15 species of summer-blooming Asteraceae, tribe Cardueae, from hot-dry habitats in the southern Iberian Peninsula. Temperature inside (Tin) and outside (Tout) capitula were assessed under natural field conditions by two complementary sampling and measurement procedures, which provided information on the relationships between the two temperatures at the levels of individual capitula ("continuous recording") and local plant populations ("instantaneous measurements"). Baselines for the Tin-Tout relationship in absence of physiological activity were obtained by exposing dehydrated capitula to variable ambient temperatures. To assess whether the co-flowering capitula of summer-blooming Asteraceae collectively defined a distinct thermal layer, the vertical distribution of capitula relative to the ground was quantified. Bees visiting capitula were watched and the temperature of the air beside the visited capitulum was measured. Capitula of all species were exposed to high ambient temperatures during long periods, yet their interior was cooler than the air for most of the time, with temperature differentials ({Delta}T=Tin-Tout) quite often approaching, and sometimes exceeding -10{degrees}C. The relationship between Tin and Tout was best described by a composite of steep and shallow linear relationships separated by a breakpoint ({Psi}, interspecific range=25{degrees}C-35{degrees}C). Capitula were weakly or not thermoregulated for Tout<{Psi}, but switched to intense, thermoregulated cooling when Tout>{Psi}. Narrow vertical distribution of capitula above ground and similar cooling responses by all species produced a refrigerated floral layer where most bees foraged at Tout>{Psi} and presumably visited cooled capitula. Thermoregulatory cooling of capitula can benefit plant reproduction by reducing pollen and ovule exposure to high temperature, but also the populations of insect mutualists and antagonists through habitat improvement via a refrigerated flower layer. OPEN RESEARCH STATEMENTData, metadata and R script will be made available at figshare.

ecology↗
bioRxiv2024

Scaling ecological niches from individuals to populations and beyond

The niche is a key concept that unifies ecology and evolutionary biology. However, empirical and theoretical treatments of the niche are mostly performed at the species level, neglecting individuals as important units of ecological and evolutionary processes. So far, a formal mathematical link between individual-level niches and higher organismal-level niches has been lacking, hampering the unification of ecological theories and more accurate forecasts of biodiversity change. To fill in this gap, we propose a bottom-up approach to derive population and higher organismal-level niches from individual niches. We demonstrate the power of our framework by showing that 1) the statistical properties of higher organismal-level niches (e.g. niche breadth, skewness etc.) can be partitioned into individual contributions; 2) the species-level niche shifts can be estimated by tracing the responses of individuals. Our method paves the way for a unifying niche theory and enables mechanistic assessments of organism-environment relationships across organismal scales.

ecology↗
bioRxiv2025

Ecological niche stability of Biomphalaria intermediate hosts for Schistosoma mansoni under extreme flooding and seasonal change

Understanding spatiotemporal distributions and niches of vectors and intermedi-ate hosts for ecologically dependent pathogens is crucial for identifying endemic areas, assessing habitat suitability for transmission, and targeting interventions for both the environment and humans. This study focuses on Biomphalaria sudan-ica and B. stanleyi, intermediate hosts of intestinal schistosomes, with over 700 million people at risk in endemic areas. We identified how extreme flooding and seasonal changes influence habitat preferences and species interactions across 674 sites in 52 villages in rural Uganda between 2022-2024. A comprehensive analy-sis of ground truth data was conducted, covering spatiotemporal information, site characteristics, physicochemical parameters, ecological factors, and human activi-ties. Spatiotemporal models incorporating a new polygon-based method to account for space, bypassing limitations of administrative boundaries, with time as a fixed effect were developed to analyse snail abundance. B. sudanica was associated with marshy sites near lake shorelines and presence of hyacinths, while B. stanleyi was more likely found in deeper waters with Vallisneria plants. However, both species often cohabited at the same sites. The extent of habitat suitability for each species fluctuated seasonally and more starkly with extreme flooding resulting in switch-ing of dominance between species. Our study shows that climatic variations may influence local changes in habitat suitability without necessitating an expansion of environmental areas. By providing a robust, generalisable spatiotemporal mod-elling pipeline, our study enables precise tracking of dynamic ecological niches in a changing climate that, if replicated in other areas, can be used to better target environmental and human interventions.

ecology↗
bioRxiv2025

Butterfly body size shrinkage: the impact of ecological traits across varied environments

Because of its close ties to numerous ecological and life history characteristics, body size is regarded as one of an organisms most important characteristics and is frequently considered a significant indicator of fitness. According to recent studies, ectotherms in particular, may see a reduction in body size with rising temperatures. How life history and ecological traits influence, however, shifts in butterfly body size in response to environmental changes, particularly focusing on the effects of temperature and land use is poorly studied. Using Generalized Additive Models (GAM), we analyzed forewing length data alongside various life history (phenology, overwintering developmental stage, voltinism, diet breadth, gender) and ecological traits (mobility, thermal tolerance) as well as environmental parameters for a period that lasts 110 years. Smaller body sizes were linked to early-season emergence and increasing forest cover, while larger sizes were linked to longer flight durations and later seasonal appearance. Males exhibited a pronounced decline in body size while females showed an opposite trend, suggesting sex-specific vulnerabilities to climate change. This research highlights the complex interplay between climate change, habitat fragmentation, and butterfly morphology, emphasizing the need for further investigation into sexual size dimorphism as anthropogenic influences continue to reshape butterfly populations.

ecology↗
bioRxiv2025

Long-Term Ecological Baselines and Critical Thresholds in Ombrotrophic Peatlands of Europe: Implications for Restoration Strategies

Maintaining appropriate peatland hydration, particularly through the regulation of the depth to the water table (DWT), is crucial for peatland conservation, restoration, and the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. In this study, we assess the long-term ecological impact of hydrological changes, primarily induced by drainage, on ombrotrophic peatlands across Europe. Our analysis is based on novel palaeoecological data from seven peat cores collected from sites that have experienced varying degrees of anthropogenic disturbance. We reconstructed historical DWT fluctuations using plant macrofossil and testate amoeba analyses at high resolution. By applying Threshold Indicator Taxa Analysis (TITAN), we identified species-specific and community-level response thresholds to changes in water level. This approach revealed two distinct change points: the first, at approximately 7 cm DWT, corresponds to hydrological conditions favourable for moisture-dependent Sphagnum species, while the second, near 22 cm DWT, is associated with more drought-adapted taxa and signals ecosystem degradation. The interval between these points represents a transition zone between optimal and suboptimal conditions for peatland functioning. An additional TITAN analysis aimed at identifying the timing of the most significant ecological changes indicates that peatland degradation intensified over the past two centuries and has accelerated in recent decades. Our findings also show that even after hydrological restoration, microbial and plant communities often remain distinct from those in undisturbed peatlands. This underscores the importance of preserving sites that still retain near-natural conditions. Based on our results (and consistent with previous studies) we recommend maintaining a DWT of approximately 10 cm below the surface as an optimal target for both peatland conservation and restoration. Such conditions not only support ecological integrity but are also associated with reduced greenhouse gas emissions and higher peat accumulation rates, reinforcing the role of ombrotrophic peatlands as long-term carbon sinks.

ecology↗
bioRxiv2025

Adapting a gas chromatograph for use as a testing chamber for thermal ecology experiments

O_LITemperature impacts many aspects of species biology and ecology. A continuing struggle for studies in thermal ecology is accurate assessment of critical thermal maxima CTmax. Identifying when loss of equilibrium (LOE) occurs has been criticized for being too subjective. This is particularly true of small organisms, such as insects, where the loss of coordination can be difficult to observe. As such, ecologists have often used lack of movement as a proxy for LOE. C_LIO_LIHere, we designed, tested, and present a guide to recycling surplus gas chromatographs for use as a thermal chamber that allows accurate and high throughput assessment of CTmax at relatively low cost. C_LIO_LIWe found the GC to be an adequate heating chamber for thermal experiments. Installation of a rotating rack that can hold glass observation vials allows for rapid identification of loss of equilibrium in subjects. We evaluated the CTmax of a common generalist predator in the Arizona cotton agroecosystem, Collops vittatus. Additional tests of static heat exposure also revealed that this chamber can be used for assessing the impacts of heat stress on predatory behavior. C_LIO_LIWe hope to encourage other ecologists to use this guide to recycle surplus laboratory equipment for use in thermal ecology studies. We believe that our thermal insect carousel can be used for CTmax, lethal temperature, and behavioral bioassays. C_LI

ecology↗
bioRxiv2025

Opportunistic diver-assisted eDNA sampling unpicks fine-scale ecological and conservation signals in tropical reef fishes

Coral reefs are emblematic ecosystems of astonishing biological diversity and significant economic value for many countries, yet they are increasingly vulnerable to direct and indirect human-related threats, such as heavy tourism and global warming. To assess the biodiversity status, track assemblage changes and forecast future trends of these megadiverse ecosystems, there is pressing need for accurate, rapid and comprehensive assessments of fish communities. Here, we employed a versatile low-tech passive environmental DNA collector, the metaprobe, in association with the recreational activity of scuba divers to collect eDNA data from reefs in the Seychelles archipelago and assess both the taxonomic and functional fish diversity of the area. Using a fish-specific 12S marker on eDNA metaprobe samples collected during 18 dives, we detected 174 fish taxa, eight elasmobranchs and 166 teleosts, corresponding to 112 unique functional entities and including iconic tropical reef taxa, endangered elasmobranchs and commercially valuable species. Despite the geographic proximity of dive sites, we identified ecological patterns of fish composition and community structure influenced by both the presence of marine protected areas (MPAs) and the type of predominant substrate (i.e., coral vs rocky). Ecological differences between MPA/non-MPA and coral/rocky habitats involved both taxonomic and functional community elements, which returned very similar patterns of significantly higher fish diversity in protected and coral areas. We argue that simple, inexpensive eDNA-based collection tools in association with recreational activities, such as scuba diving, provide a promising approach for upscaling ecological data collection and expanding biodiversity monitoring, while engaging and empowering the public.

ecology↗
bioRxiv2025

Bird species with color polymorphism have greater ecological success

The explanation of the variation in ecological success of species is one of the key challenges in ecology, evolutionary biology and conservation biology. Here, we discuss the function of polymorphism in body color which is one of the most conspicuous features of organisms strongly affecting the performance of species. We applied a phylogenetic comparative approach to assess whether body color polymorphisms contribute to species success in birds, reflected in distributional ranges, extinction risk, and current population trends. We compiled and analyzed a comprehensive global dataset that included the distribution, phylogeny, ecology and morphological traits of all extant bird species. Species with body color polymorphism showed larger distributional ranges, larger environmental ranges, lower risk of extinction, and more stable population trends. Our analyses suggest that the presence of color polymorphism contributes to avian species success at the global scale, especially reflected in lower extinction likelihood and better population trends.

ecology↗
bioRxiv2025

Spatial Ecology of Jaguars in a Coastal Amazon Island Ecosystem

Understanding the spatial ecology of large carnivores is essential for effective conservation, particularly in insular or fragmented systems where movement is constrained. Jaguars are particularly important to study, as they are opportunistic predators whose diet and behaviour shifts flexibly with local prey availability. We investigated the movement patterns, home range dynamics, and social interactions of jaguars (Panthera onca) on Maraca-Jipioca Island, a pair of small, seasonally flooded islands, in a low-disturbance reserve in the Brazilian Amazon. Using GPS collars, we tracked seven individuals and found that males had significantly larger home ranges (mean: 77.8 km{superscript 2}) than females (mean: 19.5 km{superscript 2}). Despite the islands limited area, home-range overlap was low, and direct encounters were rare. This mirrored the territorial behaviour seen in more expansive mainland populations, but contradicted patterns seen in other populations that specialised on aquatic prey. Jaguars on Maraca-Jipioca moved an average of 7.3 km/day, with no significant differences across sex, age, nor body size. However, movement speed and probability of activity varied significantly across habitats: individuals moved faster in grasslands, wetlands, and water, and more slowly in forests and mangroves. Animals also spent more time resting while in forests and mangroves as compared to grasslands, water, and wetlands. In contrast to the predominantly nocturnal habits reported in continental populations, jaguar activity on Maraca-Jipioca peaked during daylight hours, especially among females. Jaguars showed a marked preference for coastal areas but did not appear to adjust habitat use in response to tidal variation in sea level. Collectively, these findings suggest that the spatial ecology of Maraca-Jipioca jaguars is comprised of typical and novel behaviours, shaped by both the species evolutionary history, and the islands unique ecological context. These findings highlight the species behavioural flexibility and offer rare insights into how a large carnivore persists in an insular Amazonian landscape.

ecology↗
bioRxiv2025

Redox-constrained microbial ecology dictates nitrogen loss versus retention

Microorganisms drive biogeochemical cycling. Therefore, examining environmental change through the lens of microbial ecology is particularly useful for developing a mechanistic understanding of the biogeochemical consequences and feedbacks of perturbations to ecosystems. When aquatic systems with deep anoxic waters undergo eutrophication, the resulting surface productivity impacts the anaerobic microbial community below. The increase in sinking organic carbon can shift the anaerobic community function from inorganic nitrogen (N) loss to N retention, amplifying eutrophication as a positive feedback. However, we lack a mechanistic understanding of this transition, which is critical for anticipating these impacts in aquatic environments where microbial community composition is unknown. Here, we provide a first-principles, quantitative model of this transition from N loss to retention by linking ecological dynamics to the energetics underlying microbial metabolisms. We develop and analyze an ecosystem model in which redox chemistry constrains the traits of key anaerobic N-cycling microbial functional types: denitrification, dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA), and anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox). The model captures the transition from N loss to N retention with increasing organic carbon supply, consistent with previous observations for specific systems and species. Results identify characteristics of the microbial community composition at the net zero N loss point at which N loss balances N retention, providing testable hypotheses for sequencing data and other observations. By tying microbial ecological dynamics to environmental chemical potential, results provide a broadly applicable framework for improving predictions of the biogeochemical impacts of eutrophication alongside deoxygenation and other ecosystem perturbations.

ecology↗
bioRxiv2025

Label invariance: a guiding principle for ecological models

Ecological models, though diverse in form, are strengthened when they obey guiding principles. We formalize and advocate for a foundational principle we call "label invariance", which says that a models dynamics must remain the same when identical individuals are arbitrarily grouped into distinct sub-populations. This principle is a necessary consequence of trait continuity--the observation that ecological interactions change continuously as organisms become more similar. Violation of label invariance often implies a hidden, intrinsic niche differentiation between species, which may obscure the mechanisms of biodiversity maintenance. We provide a general framework for constructing both deterministic and stochastic models that follow label invariance. We further demonstrate its utility as a complementary, non-statistical tool for empirical model selection. In sum, label invariance provides an important test for evaluating existing ecological models and a guide for developing new ones, promoting clarity in model assumptions from the outset.

ecology↗