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Results for “Animal Behavior and Cognition”

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bioRxiv2021

Automated video tracking and flight analysis show how bumblebees solve a pattern discrimination task using active vision

Active vision, the ability of the visual system to actively sample and select relevant information out of a visual scene through eye and head movements, has been explored in a variety of animal species. Small-brained animals such as insects might rely even more on sequential acquisition of pattern features since there might be less parallel processing capacity in their brains than in vertebrates. To investigate how active vision strategies enable bees to solve visual tasks, here, we employed a simple visual discrimination task in which individual bees were presented with a multiplication symbol and a 45{degrees} rotated version of the same pattern ("plus sign"). High-speed videography of unrewarded tests and analysis of the bees flight paths shows that only a small region of the pattern is inspected before successfully accepting a target or rejecting a distractor. The bees scanning behaviour of the stimuli differed for plus signs and multiplication signs, but for each of these, the flight behaviour was consistent irrespective of whether the pattern was rewarding or unrewarding. Bees typically oriented themselves at ~{+/-}30{degrees} to the patterns such that only one eye had an unobscured view of stimuli. There was a significant preference for initially scanning the left side of the stimuli. Our results suggest that the bees movement may be an integral part of a strategy to efficiently analyse and encode their environment. Summary statementAutomated video tracking and flight analysis is proposed as the next milestone in understanding mechanisms underpinning active vision and cognitive visual abilities of bees.

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2021

The gut parasite Nosema ceranae impairs olfactory learning in bumblebees

Pollinators are exposed to numerous parasites and pathogens when foraging on flowers. These biological stressors may affect critical cognitive abilities required for foraging. Here, we tested whether exposure to Nosema ceranae, one of the most widespread parasite of honey bees also found in wild pollinators, impacts cognition in bumblebees. We investigated different forms of olfactory learning and memory using conditioning of the proboscis extension reflex. Seven days after feeding parasite spores, bumblebees showed lower performance in absolute and differential learning, and reversal learning than controls. Long-term memory was also slightly reduced. The consistent effect of N. ceranae exposure across different types of olfactory learning indicates that its action was not specific to particular brain areas or neural processes. We discuss the potential mechanisms by which N. ceranae impairs bumblebee cognition and the broader consequences for populations of pollinators.

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2021

Trimethylamine N-Oxide (TMAO) links peripheral insulin resistance and cognitive deficiencies in a senescence accelerated mouse model

It has been established that ageing is the major risk factor for cognitive deficiency or neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimers disease (AD) and it is becoming increasingly evident that insulin resistance is another factor. Biological plausibility for a link between insulin resistance and dementia is relevant for understanding disease etiology, and to form bases for prevention efforts to decrease disease burden. The dysfunction of the insulin signaling system and glucose metabolism has been proposed to be responsible for brain aging. Normal insulin signaling in the brain is required to mediate growth, metabolic functions, and the survival of neurons and glia. Insulin receptors are densely expressed in the olfactory bulb, the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus and regulate neurotransmitter release and receptor recruitment. In normal elderly individuals, reduced glucose tolerance and decreased insulin levels in the aged brain are typically observed. Furthermore, insulin signaling is aberrantly activated in the AD brain, leading to non-responsive insulin receptor signaling. The senescence accelerated mouse (SAMP8) mouse was one of the accelerated senescence strains that spontaneously developed from breeding pairs of the AKR/J series. The SAMP8 mouse develops early learning and memory deficits (between 6 and 8 months) together with other characteristics similar to those seen in Alzheimers disease. The present project proposes the investigation of the missing link between aging, insulin resistance and dementia. Peripheral but not central insulin resistance was found in SAMP8 mice accompanied by cognitive deficiencies. Furthermore, a marked peripheral inflammatory state (i.e. significantly higher adipose tissue TNF- and IL6 levels) were observed in SAMP8 mice, followed by neuroinflammation that could be due to a higher cytokine leaking into the brain across a aging-disrupted BBB. Moreover, aging-induced gut dysbiosis produces higher TMAO that could also contribute to the peripheral and central inflammatory tone as well as to the cognitive deficiencies observed in SAMP8 mice. All those alterations were reversed by DMB, a treatment inhibits the transformation of choline, carnitine and crotonobetaine, decreaseing TMAO levels. The ever-increasing incidence of neurodegenerative diseases not only limits the life quality of the affected individuals and their families but also poses an enormous demand on the societies. Thus, it is instrumental to pursue novel promising approaches to prevent and treat it at the highest possible speed to rapidly translate them to clinical practice. From this point of view, data obtained from this project will be instrumental to validate the principle approach of microbial dysbiosis and increased TMAO secretion as a key link between aging, insulin resistance and dementia. Collectively, the proposed experiments ideally integrate the aim to promote a novel approach to improve the lives of those suffering from cognitive disturbances.

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2023

Effects of Reproductive Experience on Cost-Benefit Decision Making in Females and Males

Almost all individuals undergo reproductive and/or parenting experience at some point in their lives, and pregnancy and childbirth in particular are associated with alterations in the prevalence of several psychiatric disorders. Research in rodents shows that maternal experience affects spatial learning and other aspects of hippocampal function. In contrast, there has been little work in animal models concerning how reproductive experience affects cost-benefit decision making, despite the relevance of this aspect of cognition for psychiatric disorders. To begin to address this issue, reproductively experienced (RE) and reproductively naive (RN) female and male Long-Evans rats were tested across multiple tasks that assess different forms of cost-benefit decision making. In a risky decision-making task, in which rats chose between a small, safe food reward and a large food reward accompanied by variable probabilities of punishment, RE and RN males did not differ, whereas RE females chose the large risky reward significantly more frequently than RN females (greater risk taking). In an intertemporal choice task, in which rats chose between a small, immediate food reward and a large food reward delivered after a variable delay period, RE males chose the large reward more frequently than RN males, whereas RE females chose the large reward less frequently than RN females. Together, these results show distinct effects of reproductive experience on different forms of cost-benefit decision making in rats of both sexes, and highlight reproductive status as a variable that could influence aspects of cognition relevant for psychiatric disorders.

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2024

Meta-analyses reveal support for the Social Intelligence Hypothesis

The Social Intelligence Hypothesis (SIH) is one of the leading explanations for the evolution of cognition. Since its inception a vast body of literature investigating the predictions of the SIH has accumulated, using a variety of methodologies and species. However, the generalisability of the hypothesis remains unclear. To gain an understanding of the robustness of the SIH as an explanation for the evolution of cognition, we systematically searched the literature for studies investigating the predictions of the SIH. Accordingly, we compiled 103 studies with 584 effect sizes from 17 taxonomic orders. We present the results of four meta-analyses which reveal support for the SIH across interspecific, intraspecific and developmental studies. However, effect sizes did not differ significantly between the cognitive or sociality metrics used, taxonomy or testing conditions. Thus, support for the SIH is similar across studies using neuroanatomy and cognitive performance, those using broad categories of sociality, group size and social interactions, across taxonomic groups, and for tests conducted in captivity or the wild. Overall, our meta-analyses support the SIH as an evolutionary and developmental explanation for cognitive variation.

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2024

Trapline foraging by nectar-collecting hornets

Central place foraging bees, butterflies, birds and bats are known to develop routes in order to visit familiar plant resources in a stable and repeatable order called "traplines". Here we report a similar behaviour in a social wasp, the Japanese yellow hornet Vespa simillima. We monitored the foraging movements of individually marked wild hornets collecting sucrose solution on four artificial flowers placed in the field. After thirty foraging bouts, all the hornets had developed a repeatable flower visitation sequence. Using two different arrays of flowers, we show how hornets increase their foraging efficiency through time but do not always use the shortest path to visit all flowers, often favoring movements between nearest neighbor flowers over global path optimization. Our study adds nectar-foraging wasps to the growing list of animals developing traplines thereby opening new perspectives for comparative cognition research.

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2018

Cleaner wrasse pass the mark test. What are the implications for consciousness and self-awareness testing in animals?

The ability to perceive and recognise a reflected mirror image as self (mirror self-recognition, MSR) is considered a hallmark of cognition across species. Although MSR has been reported in mammals and birds, it is not known to occur in any other major taxon. A factor potentially limiting the ability to test for MSR is that the established assay for MSR, the mark test, shows an interpretation bias towards animals with the dexterity (or limbs) required to touch a mark. Here, we show that the cleaner wrasse fish, Labroides dimidiatus, passes through all phases of the mark test: (i) social reactions towards the reflection, (ii) repeated idiosyncratic behaviours towards the mirror (contingency testing), and (iii) frequent observation of their reflection. When subsequently provided with a coloured tag, individuals attempt to remove the mark in the presence of a mirror but show no response towards transparent marks, or to coloured marks in the absence of a mirror. This remarkable finding presents a challenge to our interpretation of the mark test - do we accept that these behavioural responses in the mark test, which are taken as evidence of self-recognition in other species, mean that fish are self-aware? Or do we conclude that these behavioural patterns have a basis in a cognitive process other than self-recognition? If the former, what does this mean for our understanding of animal intelligence? If the latter, what does this mean for our application and interpretation of the mark test as a metric for animal cognitive abilities?

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2026

Development of cognition in corvids

Corvids - members of the crow family - exhibit some of the most sophisticated cognitive abilities outside the primate lineage, yet the developmental origins of many of these abilities remain poorly understood. Here, we present a systematic review of the past 20 years (from 2005) of empirical research on corvid cognitive development, synthesising evidence across core/ foundational, social and physical cognitive domains. Using a structured search strategy and detailed coding framework, we identified 47 relevant studies spanning 16 corvid species. We evaluate and discuss developmental trajectories, species/ taxa-level variation and methodological robustness across studies. For within and between-taxa comparisons, we particularly focus on the best represented abilities in the coded sample: 1) object permanence and caching; 2) tool-use/ manufacture; 3) object manipulation and play; and 4) gaze following. Corvid developmental patterns show both parallels and divergences from those documented in primates and other taxa. However, the existing corvid evidence base is constrained by small samples, captive biases, limited longitudinal data and under-representation of key cognitive abilities, such as executive function, causal reasoning, self-control, metacognition, spatial memory and social learning. We outline critical gaps and future directions, emphasising the need for comparative, longitudinal and ecologically grounded approaches, including the science of magic and Theory of Mind, to better understand how early-life cognition shapes later behaviour, cognition and fitness in this model avian family.

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2021

Task-independent metrics of computational hardness predict performance of human problem-solving

The survival of human organisms depends on our ability to solve complex tasks in the face of limited cognitive resources. However, little is known about the factors that drive the complexity of those tasks. Here, building on insights from computational complexity theory, we quantify the computational hardness of cognitive tasks using a set of task-independent metrics related to the computational resource requirements of individual instances of a task. We then examine the relation between those metrics and human behavior and find that they predict both time spent on a task as well as accuracy in three canonical cognitive tasks. Our findings demonstrate that performance in cognitive tasks can be predicted based on generic metrics of their inherent computational hardness. TeaserThe ability of humans to solve cognitive tasks is affected by generic mathematical properties of problems related to their computational complexity.

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2026

Sex-dependent neuronal loss and apoptosis-associated signaling in the anterior cingulate and anterior insular cortices in a late-stage MIA mouse model of osteoarthritis.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a leading cause of disability worldwide, with chronic pain representing its most debilitating symptom and frequently accompanied by affective and cognitive comorbidities. Increasing evidence implicates maladaptive supraspinal plasticity within cortical regions involved in pain affect, including the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and anterior insular cortex (AIC), however, the relationship between these behavioral impairments and neuronal alterations, as well as potential sex-specific vulnerability, remains poorly documented. Using a monosodium iodoacetate (MIA) model of knee OA in adult male and female mice, we examined the temporal progression of sensory, affective, and cognitive alterations at early (day 7) and advanced (day 28) stages of disease. Pain sensitivity, locomotor and gait changes, anxiety- and depression-like behaviors, and working-memory performance were assessed using established behavioral paradigms, followed by analyses of apoptosis-associated neuronal signaling in the ACC and AIC. MIA induced robust mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity and gait impairment in both sexes, while early emotional and cognitive alterations were not observed. In contrast, advanced OA was associated with pronounced anxiety- and depression-like behaviors and impaired working memory. Notably, analysis at day 28 post-MIA revealed a significant increase in apoptotic signaling and neuronal loss in both cortical regions, with females exhibiting greater vulnerability, particularly within the AIC, paralleling their more severe affective phenotypes. Together, these findings indicate that chronic OA pain is associated with progressive, sex-dependent neuronal loss within key cortical pain-affective circuits and highlight supraspinal remodeling as a potential substrate underlying the emotional and cognitive burden of OA pain.

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2025

Pharmacological Reversal of Attention Deficits in Non-Human Primates: Implications for Alzheimer's Disease

Attention deficits emerge early in Alzheimers disease (AD), where cholinergic dysfunction compromises goal-directed behavior and cognitive control. Therefore, attentional impairments may serve as early indicators of cognitive decline, and also as meaningful targets for therapeutic intervention. Despite their clinical importance, attention deficits remain under- targeted by current treatments, which offer only modest benefit. To support development of more effective therapies, preclinical models that closely mirror human neurobiology and behavior are essential. Non-human primates (NHPs), with their high degree of cortical and functional similarity to humans, particularly in prefrontal regions, offer a uniquely translational platform for evaluating cognitive enhancers. We assessed pharmacological interventions targeting sustained attention using the Continuous Performance Test (CPT) in adult male cynomolgus macaques. Monkeys were trained to detect target stimuli while ignoring distractors, achieving individualized stable performance. To simulate cholinergic dysfunction, we administered scopolamine, a muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist, which produced dose-dependent declines in accuracy and reaction time. Mild and severe impairment levels were identified within each animal. We then tested three compounds: nicotine, guanfacine, and donepezil. Nicotine, a nicotinic receptor agonist, fully restored performance across both impairment levels, suggesting potential benefit in both early and advanced AD. Guanfacine, an 2A adrenergic agonist, improved accuracy only under mild impairment, while donepezil, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, showed inconsistent effects. None of the compounds reversed scopolamine-induced slowing of reaction time, indicating specificity for attentional control. These findings highlight the utility of the NHP CPT as a pharmacologically sensitive model for detecting attentional dysfunction and evaluating pro-cognitive therapeutics in aging and neurodegeneration.

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2025

Unveiling Cognitive Processes in Mice through Reinforcement Learning Models in the FST and TST

Simple behavioral tests like the forced swim test (FST) and tail suspension test (TST) are widely used to assess depression-like behaviors in rodents, primarily measuring immobility time. However, this approach oversimplifies behavioral readouts and overlooks the cognitive processes driving behavior, leaving the relationship between increased immobility and cognitive biases unclear. Here, we developed the SwimStruggleTracker (SST) to extract fine-grained behavioral trajectories and integrate computational modeling to methodically analyze behavior. Our findings reveal that behavior in the FST and TST follows reinforcement learning principles involving learning, consequence perception, and decision-making. Notably, the cognitive processes underlying behavior differ between the two tests, challenging the assumption that they are interchangeable for cross-validation. Regression analyses identify distinct behavior phases: early behavior is primarily influenced by learning-related factors, while later stages are more affected by consequence sensitivity. These findings suggest traditional analyses focusing final minutes may underestimate the role of learning and overemphasize consequence sensitivity. MotivationThe forced swim test (FST) and tail suspension test (TST) are among the most widely used paradigms for assessing depression-like behaviors in rodents. Yet, traditional analyses typically quantify only immobility during the final minutes, discarding rich temporal structure in the data and hindering efforts to uncover the cognitive mechanisms underlying these behaviors. To address this gap, we developed an automated tool that captures behavioral trajectories with fine temporal resolution and integrates computational modeling to dissect the cognitive processes driving behavior. Using this approach, we demonstrate that the FST and TST engage overlapping but partially distinct cognitive processes, and that the dominant cognitive components shift across different stages of the tests. HighlightsO_LISwimStruggleTracker (SST) accurately rejects passive movements, such as pendulum-like motion. C_LIO_LIReinforcement learning models capture the behavioral dynamics of mice in the FST and TST. C_LIO_LIDistinct winning models indicate that the FST and TST engage partially dissociable cognitive processes. C_LIO_LILearning factors dominate early stages, whereas consequence-sensitivity factors dominate later stages. C_LI

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2026

Living off the grid: Spatial representations show systematic non-Euclidean distortions regardless of their age and how measured

Spatial memory is invaluable for most mobile organisms, yet nature of the underlying representations that we employ for spatial memory has been fiercely contested. On the one hand, the presence of place cells in the hippocampus and grid cells in the medial entorhinal cortex appear to support the argument spatial representations may follow Euclidean axioms, termed "the cognitive map hypothesis." On the other hand, decades of behavioral research in humans reveals that spatial memory often shows characteristic distortions, leading to the alternative, cognitive graph hypothesis, to account for this aspect of spatial memory. Importantly, the majority of laboratory studies tend to occur within novel environments in which participants often have only limited exposure and no personal relevance. We were interested in studying large-scale memory across multiple time scales: from a virtual environment (e.g., learned over several minutes) to a college campus (e.g., months to a few years) to a hometown environment (e.g., many years). Across several tasks, we found that participants exhibited systematic distortions in their memory for all of these environments. Likewise, we found significant correlations between performance on several spatial memory tasks (both between participants and within-participant analyses of patterns of errors), thus suggesting that these tasks tap into partially overlapping cognitive representations and supporting their construct validity. Altogether, our findings provide clear evidence for cognitive graph hypothesis and support the construct validity of several spatial memory tasks within large-scale, real-world environments that are learned over the course of several months to years. Public Significance StatementSpatial memory is key for our ability to live independent lives (e.g., patients with Alzheimers disease lose independence, partially due to disorientation in familiar environments). Typical laboratory-based measures of spatial memory use novel environments that may differ in complexity vs. real-world environments (e.g., size, layout, number of landmarks, duration of exploration, personal relevance). We leveraged breakthroughs in technology to study spatial memory across several tasks and temporal scales, from a novel environment navigated over the course of several minutes to a university campus (e.g., months to years) to hometowns (e.g., years to decades). We observed consistent evidence for systematic distortions in spatial memory, which supports the hypothesis that spatial memory is supported by a cognitive graph, thus posing an important challenge to the extremely influential Euclidean, "cognitive map" hypothesis that was awarded a Nobel Prize in 2014.

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2022

Specific Ethogram of the Mexican four-eyed octopus: Octopus maya.

Historically, behavior studies have focused mainly on animals of two phyla in particular: Craniata and Arthropoda, however, behavioral research on alternative phyla like mollusks has been increasing because of the potential for research that these models present. When we talk about mollusk behavior, cephalopods are the first group that stands out, however, research on Mexicos endemic species like Octopus maya, is still lacking. This octopus could help to reach a standardized model in neuroscience, because adapts well to laboratory conditions and has been successfully cultured through several generations. These characteristics provide a great advantage as a research model since they could reduce the number of variables that affect behavioral studies, something hard to control with a captured-wild octopus. Hence, in order to work properly with species like this, in research environments, its fundamental to know first the behaviors that this species can perform there. Therefore, the objective of this study was to elaborate an ethogram that describes the behavioral repertoire that O. maya displays in laboratory conditions. Thirteen individuals of O. maya (6-20g) were used and maintained in tanks with a closed circulation seawater system and illuminated with a red light of 30 lx in a 12:12 LD cycle. Nine of these individuals were used for an ad libitum sampling of behaviors to name, define, categorize and operationally describe them. The last four individuals were used to establish day/night activity patterns, (length and frequency of behaviors throughout the day). The obtained results showed that O. maya has a wide behavioral repertoire with at least twenty-three behaviors, which were included in six different behavioral categories. The obtained results showed that O. maya has a wide behavioral repertoire with at least twenty-three behaviors, which were organized in six different behavioral categories. Also, this species showed differentiated activity patterns between day and night, with peaks of activity, distribution, and frequencies of activity behaviors mainly during the light hours. These results showed that O. maya has behaviors comparable with other octopus species and support the proposal for its use as a viable research model. Knowing the behavioral repertoire of O. maya allows for better control in future behavioral studies using this model, provides the main tools to evaluate the organisms health and status, and supports its use for research in neuroscience and cognition.

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2024

Short-term memory errors are strongly associated with a drift in neural activity in the posterior parietal cortex

Understanding the neural mechanisms behind short-term memory (STM) errors is crucial for unraveling cognitive processes and addressing deficits associated with neuropsychiatric disorders. This study examines whether STM errors arise from misrepresentation of sensory information or decay in these representations over time. Using 2-photon calcium imaging in the posterior parietal cortex (PPC) of mice performing a delayed match-to-sample task, we identified a subset of PPC neurons exhibiting both directional and temporal selectivity. Contrary to the hypothesis that STM errors primarily stem from mis-encoding during the sample phase, our findings reveal that these errors are more strongly associated with a drift in neural activity during the delay period. This drift leads to a gradual divergence away from the correct representation, ultimately leading to incorrect behavioral responses. These results emphasize the importance of maintaining stable neural representations in the PPC for accurate STM. Furthermore, they highlight the potential for therapeutic interventions aimed at stabilizing PPC activity during delay periods as a strategy for mitigating cognitive impairments in conditions like schizophrenia.

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2026

α-synuclein pathology drives multi-scale reorganization of fronto-limbic networks and cognitive flexibility in the common marmoset

Understanding how -synuclein misfolding and spreading affect brain systems is central to synucleinopathy research, yet evidence from primate models remains limited. Here, we combined histology, awake structural MRI, awake resting-state fMRI, regional homogeneity, actimetry and touchscreen behavioral testing to longitudinally track the consequences of striatal -synuclein seeding in the common marmoset. Phosphorylated -synuclein inclusions were detected from 2 months post-injection and spread progressively to distributed cortical and subcortical regions bilaterally, accompanied by regionally specific structural atrophy. Functional imaging revealed widespread disruption of large-scale networks, particularly within fronto-limbic circuits, alongside reductions in local functional coherence. Despite the absence of overt motor or sleep deficits, animals exhibited a selective impairment in cognitive flexibility, with preserved learning and task engagement. These findings indicate that striatal -synuclein seeding induces a multi-scale reorganization of brain networks preferentially affecting circuits supporting cognitive flexibility and limbic processing, establishing a primate platform for studying early stages of synucleinopathy.

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2024

Development of a Marmoset Apparatus for Automated Pulling (MarmoAAP) to Study Cooperative Behaviors

In recent years, the field of neuroscience has increasingly recognized the importance of studying animal behaviors in naturalistic environments to gain deeper insights into ethologically relevant behavioral processes and neural mechanisms. The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), due to its small size, prosocial nature, and genetic proximity to humans, has emerged as a pivotal model toward this effort. However, traditional research methodologies often fail to fully capture the nuances of marmoset social interactions and cooperative behaviors. To address this critical gap, we developed the Marmoset Apparatus for Automated Pulling (MarmoAAP), a novel behavioral apparatus designed for studying cooperative behaviors in common marmosets. MarmoAAP addresses the limitations of traditional behavioral research methods by enabling high-throughput, detailed behavior outputs that can be integrated with video and audio recordings, allowing for more nuanced and comprehensive analyses even in a naturalistic setting. We also highlight the flexibility of MarmoAAP in task parameter manipulation which accommodates a wide range of behaviors and individual animal capabilities. Furthermore, MarmoAAP provides a platform to perform investigations of neural activity underlying naturalistic social behaviors. MarmoAAP is a versatile and robust tool for advancing our understanding of primate behavior and related cognitive processes. This new apparatus bridges the gap between ethologically relevant animal behavior studies and neural investigations, paving the way for future research in cognitive and social neuroscience using marmosets as a model organism.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2023

Chemotactile perception and associative learning of amino acids in yellowjacket workers

Learning and memory are essential for animal survival, influencing preferences, decision-making, and foraging behaviour. In this study, we explore the perceptual and learning abilities of Vespula germanica (yellowjacket wasps) to various amino acids. We hypothesize that V. germanica can qualitatively evaluate various amino acid solutions, given their scavenging habits and the possibility of metabolizing amino acids to fuel energy. Through chemo-tactile differential conditioning, we studied worker wasp maxilla labium extension response (MaLER) to essential (Lysine, Tryptophan, Arginine) and non-essential amino acids (Ornithine, Aspartic acid, Glycine). Conditioning sessions included individual amino acids against water and comparisons between different amino acids. Additionally, we tested retention, discrimination, and generalization abilities, 30 minutes later with conditioned and novel stimuli. Our results show that wasps exhibit the ability to learn and discriminate various amino acids. The discrimination capacity extended to differentiating between pairs of amino acids. Memory retention was generally robust, but certain associations observed during conditioning did not persist after a 30-minute interval. Moreover, when wasps were trained with essential amino acids, the acquired learning did not generally extend to other non-essential amino acids, except for Arginine, which exhibited generalization when tested with its precursor, Ornithine. Conversely, when trained with non-essential amino acids, the acquired learning generalized to other essential amino acids. These results suggest that, unlike other hymenopterans, wasps can detect, discriminate, and generalize free amino acids, crucial for their foraging decisions. This knowledge contributes to understanding the cognitive dimensions of V. germanica and their implications for targeted pest management. Summary statementThis study on Vespula germanicas amino acid perception enhances our understanding of foraging behaviours. The findings contribute to insect cognition studies, with potential implications for pest management.

animal behavior and cognition↗