A defined multi-kingdom microbial consortium naturalizes the immune system of laboratory mice

Yang, Y.; Shan, L.; Zhou, C.; Bayard, N.; Krishnamurthy, S. R.; Gerrick, E. R.; Howitt, M. R.; Shaw, S.; Striepen, B.; Ruella, M.; Cadwell, K.

doi:10.64898/2026.10.09.757975

bioRxiv · 10.64898/2026.10.09.757975

A defined multi-kingdom microbial consortium naturalizes the immune system of laboratory mice

Yang, Y.·Shan, L.·Zhou, C.·Bayard, N.·Krishnamurthy, S. R.·Gerrick, E. R.·Howitt, M. R.·Shaw, S.·Striepen, B.·Ruella, M.·Cadwell, K.

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Abstract

Dirty mice experiments suggest that laboratory mice fail to model certain human immune responses due to their limited microbial exposure. The identity, nature, and number of microbes required to normalize the immune system are unknown. Through systematic screening, we uncovered unexpected cross-kingdom microbial interactions and identified four enteric microbes spanning viruses, fungi, and protists sufficient to reproduce key immunological features of pet store mice and adult humans. This consortium also altered cancer outcomes, shifting tumorigenesis toward the anatomical pattern of human familial adenomatous polyposis in ApcMin/+ mice and recapitulating the imperfect response of many patients to chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy. Thus, surprisingly few microbes can profoundly reshape immune states and disease responses, providing a tractable approach to naturalize laboratory mouse immunity.

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Yang, Y., Shan, L., Zhou, C., Bayard, N., Krishnamurthy, S. R., Gerrick, E. R., Howitt, M. R., Shaw, S., Striepen, B., Ruella, M., Cadwell, K.. 2026-10-16. A defined multi-kingdom microbial consortium naturalizes the immune system of laboratory mice. https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.10.09.757975

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