A humanized Galleria mellonella model reveals prophage-mediated breakdown of colonization resistance against Salmonella

Abstract

BackgroundColonisation resistance provided by the gut microbiota is a critical barrier to pathogen invasion, yet its study in vivo is constrained by the complexity and cost of vertebrate models. Here, we developed a humanised Galleria mellonella infection model by inoculating wax moth larvae with complex human faecal microbiota. 16S rRNA gene sequencing confirmed stable, reproducible establishment of a diverse human-associated community across larvae over four days. ResultsHumanised larvae exhibited colonisation resistance against Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, with mortality reduced to 20% compared to 90% in non-colonised controls. To test whether prophages could overcome this barrier, we infected larvae with isogenic S. Tm strains differing in the presence of prophage P22. Infection with the P22-carrying strain resulted in a threefold higher larval mortality (60% vs. 20%), increased pathogen load, and a significant reduction in the abundance of resident E. coli. Free P22 virions were detected early after infection, indicating extensive prophage activity. Notably, P22 can neither adsorb nor lyse resident E. coli, indicating that prophage-mediated invasion success did not rely on direct lysis. Instead, using high-throughput metabolic profiling paired with whole genome sequencing of three replicate lineages, we found that phage activation intensified resource-partitioning, accelerating functional metabolic adaptations in E. coli that significantly reduced the niche-overlap between the invading pathogen and the commensal E. coli. ConclusionOur findings establish the first humanised G. mellonella model supporting complex human microbiota and provide a novel non-lytic mechanism by which prophages influence species interactions. This scalable, low-cost model offers a new platform to dissect pathogen-phage-microbiota interactions relevant to human gut ecology.