A Pan-pangenome illuminates complex structural variation and selection in humans, chimpanzees, and bonobos

Rocha, J.; Lou, R. N.; De Lima Adam, C.; Hebbar, P.; Ferguson, S.; Bolognini, D.; Killilea, A.; Hoekzema, K.; Guarracino, A.; Deng, Y.; Soranzo, N.; Paten, B.; Garrison, E.; Pollen, A.; Eichler, E.; Rohlfs, R.; Mitchell, M.; Sudmant, P. H.

doi:10.64898/2026.06.06.730619

bioRxiv · 10.64898/2026.06.06.730619

A Pan-pangenome illuminates complex structural variation and selection in humans, chimpanzees, and bonobos

Rocha, J.·Lou, R. N.·De Lima Adam, C.·Hebbar, P.·Ferguson, S.·Bolognini, D.·Killilea, A.·Hoekzema, K.·Guarracino, A.·Deng, Y.·Soranzo, N.·Paten, B.·Garrison, E.·Pollen, A.·Eichler, E.·Rohlfs, R.·Mitchell, M.·Sudmant, P. H.

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Abstract

Complete, haplotype-resolved genome assemblies have provided unprecedented insight into the evolution of structurally complex, rapidly evolving regions of human genomes1-6; however, population-scale pangenome resources of our closest relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos (genus, Pan), are necessary to ascertain the origins and evolutionary context of these loci. Here, we sequence and assemble 58 haplotypes from four distinct Pan clades to high contiguity (median contig NG50=54 Mb), including eight near-T2T genomes. These genomes reveal previously intractable genetic variation increasing estimates of genome-wide genetic diversity 6-37% across populations compared to short-read estimates7. We identify recurrent structural polymorphisms across species impacting genes associated with immune response and host-pathogen interaction and find that structural variants (SVs) are 170- to 260-fold more likely than single nucleotide variants (SNVs) to exhibit high-impact effects across species. Contrasting SV patterns across primates we find that transposable element mutation rates differ by as much as threefold between species. We show that human disease-associated short tandem repeat (TR) loci have uniquely expanded in humans sensitizing our species to these TR-expansion disorders. Physically phased haplotypes enable reconstruction of genome-wide genealogical histories, uncovering ancient, functional genetic variation maintained by balancing selection, as well as signatures of recent adaptation in chimpanzee subspecies. Several malaria-associated loci exhibit ancient structural polymorphism, including the African great ape-specific glycophorin (GYP) gene expansion. We characterize the sequence, structure, and composition of diverse glycophorin haplotypes in humans and chimpanzees. We identify independent malaria-protective GYPA-B fusion events in humans and novel chimpanzee glycophorin genes resulting from both ancient and recent fusion events demonstrating parallel adaptations to pathogen resistance across hominins. Together, our resource highlights the critical importance of nonhuman primate population-scale pangenomics for understanding the evolution of complex genome structures and the biodiversity of our endangered closest living relatives.

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Rocha, J., Lou, R. N., De Lima Adam, C., Hebbar, P., Ferguson, S., Bolognini, D., Killilea, A., Hoekzema, K., Guarracino, A., Deng, Y., Soranzo, N., Paten, B., Garrison, E., Pollen, A., Eichler, E., Rohlfs, R., Mitchell, M., Sudmant, P. H.. 2026-06-08. A Pan-pangenome illuminates complex structural variation and selection in humans, chimpanzees, and bonobos. https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.06.06.730619

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