Sex-specific associations between education-related genetic factors and fertility extend beyond educational attainment

Kuznetsov, I. A.; Giannelis, A.; Estonian Biobank Research Team,; Lehto, K.; Laisk, T.; Rietveld, C. A.; Vainik, U.; Pankratov, V.

doi:10.64898/2026.04.29.721701

bioRxiv · 10.64898/2026.04.29.721701

Sex-specific associations between education-related genetic factors and fertility extend beyond educational attainment

Kuznetsov, I. A.·Giannelis, A.·Estonian Biobank Research Team,·Lehto, K.·Laisk, T.·Rietveld, C. A.·Vainik, U.·Pankratov, V.

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Abstract

Educational attainment (EA) is strongly associated with fertility, yet the mechanisms underlying this relationship remain poorly understood. Using data from ~40,000 women and ~10,000 men in the Estonian Biobank, we examine sex-specific associations between EA polygenic scores (EA PGS) and completed fertility. The EA PGS captures an individual's genetic predisposition to completing higher levels of education, and can also be constructed separately for cognitive and non-cognitive EA components. We find that EA PGS is negatively associated with fertility among women, with a significantly stronger association for the non-cognitive than the cognitive EA polygenic score. The association of EA PGS with fertility is only partly explained by EA and is moderated by EA and reproductive timing, changing sign across age-at-first-pregnancy strata. Within-family estimates are not attenuated relative to population estimates, consistent with a predominant role of direct genetic effects. Among men, associations between EA PGS and fertility are non-significant or slightly positive. Overall, education-related genetic variation is associated with fertility through pathways largely independent of EA, operating through sex-specific and timing-dependent mechanisms. These results contribute to our understanding of the micro-level mechanisms shaping macro-level demographic change.

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Kuznetsov, I. A., Giannelis, A., Estonian Biobank Research Team,, Lehto, K., Laisk, T., Rietveld, C. A., Vainik, U., Pankratov, V.. 2026-05-03. Sex-specific associations between education-related genetic factors and fertility extend beyond educational attainment. https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.04.29.721701

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