Protein secondary structure determines the temporal relationship between folding and disulfide formation

Abstract

How and when disulfides form in proteins during their folding is a fundamental question in cell biology. Two models describe the relationship between disulfide formation and folding, the folded precursor model, in which formation of nascent structure occurs prior to the disulfides and the quasi-stochastic model where disulfides form prior to complete domain folding. Here we investigate oxidative folding within a cellular milieu of three structurally diverse substrates in order to understand the folding mechanisms required to achieve correct cysteine coupling. We use a eukaryotic translation system in which we can manipulate the redox conditions and produce stalled translation intermediates representative of different stages of translocation. We identify different disulfide bonded isomers by non-reducing SDS-PAGE. Using this approach, we determined whether each substrate followed a folding driven or disulfide driven mechanism. Our results demonstrate that the folding model is substrate-dependent with disulfides forming prior to complete domain folding in a cysteine-rich domain lacking secondary structure, whereas disulfide formation was absent in proteins with defined structural elements. In addition, we demonstrate the presence and rearrangement of non-native disulfides specifically in substrates following the quasi-stochastic model. These findings demonstrate why non-native disulfides are prevented from forming in proteins with well-defined secondary structure. Significance statementA third of human proteins contain structural elements called disulfide bonds that are often crucial for stability and function. Disulfides form between cysteines in the specialised environment of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), during the complex process of protein folding. Many proteins contain multiple cysteines that can potentially form correct or incorrect cysteine pairings. To investigate how correct disulfide pairs are formed in a biological context, we developed an experimental approach to assess disulfide formation and rearrangement as proteins enter the ER. We found that a disulfide-dense protein domain with atypical secondary structure undergoes disulfide orchestrated folding as it enters the ER and is prone to incorrect disulfide formation. In contrast, proteins with defined secondary structure form folding dependent, native disulfides. These findings show how different mechanisms of disulfide formation can be rationalised from structural features of the folding domains.