Flexible parental care in a songbird correlates with sex-specific responses to seasonal phenology, mating opportunity and reproductive success

Abstract

O_LISpecies with diverse parental care patterns often exhibit flexibility in response to environmental changes. Such changes can influence parental care decisions by altering the trade-offs between current and future reproduction. While previous studies have revealed correlations between specific social and ecological factors and parental care patterns, the joint effects of multiple factors could be rather complex and may result in different outcomes within and across populations, and between sexes. C_LIO_LIIn this study, we revealed parental care systems and their seasonal variations across three geographic populations in a polygamous species, the Chinese penduline tits (Remiz consobrinus), by monitoring breeding events over years. To investigate how local conditions (including social and ecological conditions) correlate with sex-specific parental care patterns, we compared breeding phenology and local conditions (including season length, mating opportunity and reproductive success) across the populations. C_LIO_LIStriking population differences in parental care strategies are found in this species: biparental care predominated in one population, whereas female-only care was more common in the other two. Our analyses reveal that, despite a large difference in season length, the time of egg-laying peaked similarly across the three populations. Female penduline tits determined the breeding phenology, which varies male mating opportunities dramatically over the season. For all populations, male Chinese penduline tits were more likely to desert the clutch when male mating opportunities were high. In contrast, females consistently provided care, regardless of variation in female mating opportunities. C_LIO_LIWe also found that fitness costs on the current brood resulting from offspring desertion differed across populations. This desertion cost on brood fitness matters more than achieving a high reproductive reward in driving the emergence of uniparental care, contrary to the theory that uniparental care only occurs when single parents can efficiently raise nestlings alone. C_LIO_LIOur study demonstrates that similar parental care patterns across populations could result from different underlying factor interactions and highlights the consistent sex-specific responses to local conditions in parental care. C_LI