Accelerated plastic aging in suspension (APAS): A simple, reproducible approach for the generation of model micro- and nanoplastics through simulated environmental forces

Abstract

The environmental fragmentation of plastic waste leads to the formation of micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs), which pose serious ecological and human health concerns. Despite increasing interest in their biological effects, many studies rely on artificial, uniform particles that fail to mimic the diverse physical and chemical characteristics of real-world MNPs. To address this limitation, we developed the Accelerated Plastic Aging in Suspension (APAS) system--a scalable, reproducible method that mimics natural aging processes by combining ultraviolet (UV) radiation, thermal stress, and mechanical shear to generate environmentally relevant MNPs from commonly used polymers. We used APAS to fragment polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyamide 6 (Nylon), and polyacrylonitrile (PAN), and observed time-dependent degradation, including the spontaneous formation of nanoplastics (<100 nm). Flow cytometry revealed substantial increases in particle number and reductions in average particle size over 12 weeks. Imaging flow cytometry confirmed consistent generation of heterogeneous, irregular particles across replicate batches. High-resolution imaging via AFM, TEM, and SEM confirmed the presence of nanoplastics with textured and irregular morphologies. Chemical characterization showed APAS aging altered particle surface charge and induced polymer-specific changes in autofluorescence and Raman spectral profiles, consistent with oxidative surface modifications. Laser Direct Infrared (LDIR) imaging further confirmed structural and chemical changes in polymer spectra post-aging. Functionally, under physiologically relevant shear flow conditions, endothelial cells internalized APAS-generated PET MNPs at significantly higher levels than polystyrene (PS) beads of similar size. Uptake was enhanced particularly under oscillatory flow, highlighting the influence of particle physicochemical properties on cellular interactions. Together, these findings demonstrate the ability of the APAS system to produce complex and realistic MNPs for use in environmental and toxicological studies. The system enables generation of nanoplastics and supports more accurate modelling of biological exposure scenarios compared to conventional synthetic particles.