Early resident NK cell response to local HIV infection in lymphoid tissue

Abstract

Natural killer (NK) cells are critical mediators of antiviral immunity, yet their role in lymphoid tissues--key reservoirs of HIV persistence--remains poorly defined. Here, we uncover a distinct cytotoxic signature of tonsil-resident NK cells essential for targeting HIV-infected CD4 T cells. Using a human tonsillar model of HIV infection and extracellular matrix-based functional assays, we identify a subset of NK cells co-expressing CD69, CD49a, CD103, and the adaptive marker NKG2C as potent effectors against autologous HIV-infected tissue CD4 T cells. Both CD16 and CD16- NK subsets exhibited cytotoxic antiviral activity. However, HIV infection induced profound functional alterations in these NK cells, including dysregulated expression of CD9, TRAF2, ITGA1, suggesting disrupted activation, signaling, and tissue residency. Functional assays corroborated a significant impairment in the cytotoxic capacity, indicating HIV-driven NK cell dysfunction. Intriguingly, a subset of immature CD16-CD69 NK cells underwent functional reprogramming, transitioning into a migration-competent, and metabolically primed state, driven by the upregulation of NUMAI, LCP1, SLC38A1, MT-ND2, NUMA1, MYH9, and CD44. Functional assays confirmed this transition, revealing changes in the expression of immune checkpoint receptors and a gain of cytotoxic function in these reprogrammed cells. These findings advance our understanding of NK cell biology in HIV infection and highlight novel avenues for NK-cell-based therapeutic strategies.