Thiopurines activate an antiviral unfolded protein response that blocks viral glycoprotein accumulation in cell culture infection model

Abstract

Enveloped viruses, including influenza A viruses (IAVs) and coronaviruses (CoVs), utilize the host cell secretory pathway to synthesize viral glycoproteins and direct them to sites of assembly. Using an image-based high-content screen, we identified two thiopurines, 6-thioguanine (6-TG) and 6-thioguanosine (6-TGo), that selectively disrupted the processing and accumulation of IAV glycoproteins hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Selective disruption of IAV glycoprotein processing and accumulation by 6-TG and 6-TGo correlated with unfolded protein response (UPR) activation and HA accumulation could be partially restored by the chemical chaperone 4-phenylbutyrate (4PBA). Chemical inhibition of the integrated stress response (ISR) restored accumulation of NA monomers in the presence of 6-TG or 6-TGo, but did not restore NA glycosylation or oligomerization. Thiopurines inhibited replication of the human coronavirus OC43 (HCoV-OC43), which also correlated with UPR/ISR activation and diminished accumulation of ORF1ab and nucleocapsid (N) mRNAs and N protein, which suggests broader disruption of coronavirus gene expression in ER-derived cytoplasmic compartments. The chemically similar thiopurine 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP) had little effect on the UPR and did not affect IAV or HCoV-OC43 replication. Consistent with reports on other CoV Spike (S) proteins, ectopic expression of SARS-CoV-2 S protein caused UPR activation. 6-TG treatment inhibited accumulation of full length S0 or furin-cleaved S2 fusion proteins, but spared the S1 ectodomain. DBeQ, which inhibits the p97 AAA-ATPase required for retrotranslocation of ubiquitinated misfolded proteins during ER-associated degradation (ERAD) restored accumulation of S0 and S2 proteins in the presence of 6-TG, suggesting that 6-TG induced UPR accelerates ERAD-mediated turnover of membrane-anchored S0 and S2 glycoproteins. Taken together, these data indicate that 6-TG and 6-TGo are effective host-targeted antivirals that trigger the UPR and disrupt accumulation of viral glycoproteins. Importantly, our data demonstrate for the first time the efficacy of these thiopurines in limiting IAV and HCoV-OC43 replication in cell culture models. IMPORTANCESecreted and transmembrane proteins are synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), where they are folded and modified prior to transport. During infection, many viruses burden the ER with the task of creating and processing viral glycoproteins that will ultimately be incorporated into viral envelopes. Some viruses refashion the ER into replication compartments where viral gene expression and genome replication take place. This viral burden on the ER can trigger the cellular unfolded protein response (UPR), which attempts to increase the protein folding and processing capacity of the ER to match the protein load. Much remains to be learned about how viruses co-opt the UPR to ensure efficient synthesis of viral glycoproteins. Here, we show that two FDA-approved thiopurine drugs, 6-TG and 6-TGo, induce the UPR in a manner that impedes viral glycoprotein accumulation for enveloped influenza viruses and coronaviruses. These drugs may impede the replication of viruses that require precise tuning of the UPR to support viral glycoprotein synthesis for the successful completion of a replication cycle.