Stochasticity in the Genotype-Phenotype Map: Implications for the Robustness and Persistence of Bet-Hedging

Abstract

For the last few decades modern biology has focused on quantifying, understanding and mapping the genetic characteristics of cells. This genotype-driven perspective has led to significant advances in our understanding and treatment of diseases such as cancer e.g. the discovery of driver mutations and the development of molecularly-targeted therapeutics. However, this perspective has largely ignored the functional outcome of genetic changes: the cellular phenotype. In part, this is simply because phenotypes are neither easy to define or measure as they critically depend on both genotype and context. Heterogeneity at the gene scale has been known for sometime, and there has been significant effort invested in trying to find patterns within it, but much less is understood about how this heterogeneity manifests itself in phenotypic change, i.e. the genotype-phenotype map (GP-map). This mapping is not one-to-one but many-to-many and is fundamentally the junction at which both genes and environment meet to produce phenotypes. Many genotypes produce similar phenotypes, and multiple phenotypes can emerge from a single genotype. To further complicate matters, genetically identical cells in uniform environments still exhibit phenotypic heterogeneity. Therefore a central open question in biology today is how can we connect the abundance of genomic data with cell phenotypic behaviour, this is especially pertinent to the issue of treatment resistance as many therapies act on cellular phenotypes.\n\nOur focus here is to tackle the GP-map question through the use of the simplest functional mapping we can define that also captures phenotypic heterogeneity: a molecular switch. Molecular switches are ubiquitous in biology, observed in many organisms and naturally map molecular components to decisions (i.e. phenotypes). Often stochastic in nature, such switches can be the difference between life or death in environments that fluctuate unpredictably, since they will ensure that at least some offspring are adapted to future environments. For convenience we use Chemical Reaction Networks (CRNs) to define the map of gene products to phenotypes, allowing us to investigate the impact of distinct mappings (CRNs) and perturbations to them. We observe that key biological properties naturally emerge, including both robustness and persistence. Robustness may explain why such bet hedging strategies are common in biology, and not readily destroyed through mutation. Whereas persistence may explain the apparent paradox of bet-hedging - why does phenotypic hedging exist in environments beneficial to only one of the phenotypes, when selection necessarily acts against it? The structure of the molecular switch, itself subject to selection, can slow the loss of hedging to ensure a survival mechanism even against environmental catastrophes which are very rare. Critically, these properties when taken together have profound and significant implications for the emergence of treatment resistance, since the timescale of extinction depends heavily on the underlying GP-map.