Epstein-Barr virus reactivation induces divergent abortive, reprogrammed, and host shutoff states by lytic progression
Viral infection leads to heterogeneous cellular outcomes ranging from refractory to abortive and fully productive states. Single cell transcriptomics enables a high resolution view of these distinct post-infection states. Here, we have interrogated the host-pathogen dynamics following reactivation of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). While benign in most people, EBV is responsible for infectious mononucleosis, up to 2% of human cancers, and is a trigger for the development of multiple sclerosis. Following latency establishment in B cells, EBV reactivates and is shed in saliva to enable infection of new hosts. Beyond its importance for transmission, the lytic cycle is also implicated in EBV-associated oncogenesis. Conversely, induction of lytic reactivation in latent EBV-positive tumors presents a novel therapeutic opportunity. Therefore, defining the dynamics and heterogeneity of EBV lytic reactivation is a high priority to better understand pathogenesis and therapeutic potential. In this study, we applied single-cell techniques to analyze diverse fate trajectories during lytic reactivation in two B cell models. Consistent with prior work, we find that cell cycle and MYC expression correlate with cells refractory to lytic reactivation. We further found that lytic induction yields a continuum from abortive to complete reactivation. Abortive lytic cells upregulate NF{kappa}B and IRF3 pathway target genes, while cells that proceed through the full lytic cycle exhibit unexpected expression of genes associated with cellular reprogramming. Distinct subpopulations of lytic cells further displayed variable profiles for transcripts known to escape virus-mediated host shutoff. These data reveal previously unknown and promiscuous outcomes of lytic reactivation with broad implications for viral replication and EBV-associated oncogenesis. AUTHOR SUMMARY / SIGNIFICANCEViral infections profoundly alter host cell biological programming in ways that potentiate disease. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a particularly prevalent human pathogen associated with diverse cancers and several autoimmune disorders. EBV predominantly establishes latent infection in B cells and can promote B cell malignancies through functions of well-characterized latent oncoproteins. Aspects of the viral lytic cycle also clearly contribute to EBV-associated diseases, although pathologic roles of lytic reactivation are incompletely understood. Here we use single-cell techniques to examine cellular responses to EBV lytic reactivation in multiple B cell models. Consistent with prior studies, reactivation from latency is incomplete (abortive) in some cells and successful in others. Abortive and full lytic trajectories exhibit distinct biological responses that each may promote pathogenesis and reinforce bimodal latent-lytic control. Intriguingly, a portion on cells that proceed through the lytic cycle exhibits unexpected and striking expression of genes associated with cellular reprogramming, pluripotency, and self-renewal. Collectively, this study provides a valuable resource to understand diverse host-virus dynamics and fates during viral reactivation and identifies multiple modes of EBV lytic pathogenesis to investigate in future research.