Biology subjects

Sarkar, S.

Publications and source records attributed to Sarkar, S..

At least 181 records · Page 10Linked to original sources

bioRxiv2020

Efficacy of information transmission in cellular communication

Inter and intra-cellular signaling are essential for individual cells to execute various physiological tasks and accurately respond to changes in their environment. Signaling is carried out via diffusible molecules, the transport of which is often aided by active processes that provide directional advection. How diffusion and advection together impact the accuracy of information transmission during cell signaling remains less studied. To this end, we study a one-dimensional model of cell signaling and compute the mutual information (MI) as a measure of information transmission. We find that the efficacy of the information transmission improves with advection only when the system parameters result in Peclet number greater than one. Intriguingly, MI exhibits nontrivial scaling with the Peclet number, characterized by three distinct regimes. We demonstrate that the observed dependence of MI on the transport properties of signaling molecules has important consequences on cellular communication.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2020

Detection of stress functional responses in bacterial populations under dry soil conditions show potential microbial mechanisms to resist drought conditions

Climate change is predicted to have a negative effect on the grasslands of the United States and will be detrimental to the economy and environment. The changing precipitation levels would also have an effect on the structural and functional potential of associated soil microbiome communities, which in turn will regulate the health of the plants during stressful conditions. In this study, we applied metagenomics analyses to capture the responses of the bacterial populations under drier soil conditions. We collected soil from two sites (dry and wet) at the Konza Long-Term Ecological Research field station in Kansas, which had characteristic features of the native prairies. Soil drying resulted in a significant shift in the bacterial population at the community level. Following that, fifteen bacterial genomes were short-listed based on the availability in the public database, higher relative abundance in dry soils than in wet, and also according to their contributions in drier soil. The potential microbial mechanisms were elucidated when an in-depth analysis of the functional genes was performed. Translation elongation factor EF-Tu, thiamine biosynthesis protein, and catalase were identified as a part of the overall stress functional responses in the bacterial population in this study. We speculate that these identified bacterial populations are important for maintaining the health of the soil under dry conditions. Genes and/or pathways found in this study provide insights into microbial mechanisms that these bacterial populations might employ to resist challenging drought conditions.

genomics↗

bioRxiv2020

Transcriptional Atlas of Ileal-Anal Pouch Immune Cells from Ulcerative Colitis Patients

How the human intestinal immune system is distinctly organized to respond to inflammation is still poorly understood. Here, we used single-cell RNA-sequencing to examine lamina propria CD45+ hematopoietic cells from patients with inflammatory bowel disease that have undergone ileal pouch-anal anastomosis, or the colon mucosa of ulcerative colitis patients. We identified a population of IL1B+ antimicrobial macrophages and FOXP3/+BATF+ T cells that are associated and expanded in inflamed tissues, which we further validated in other scRNA-seq datasets from IBD patients. CD8+ T cells were unexpectedly more abundant in the pouch than colon. Cell type specific markers obtained from single-cell RNA-sequencing was used to infer representation from bulk RNA sequencing datasets, which further implicated antimicrobial macrophages expressing IL1B with S100A8/A9 calprotectin as being associated with inflammation, as well as Bacteroides and Escherichia bacterial species. Finally, we find that non-responsiveness to anti-integrin biologic therapies in UC patients is associated with the signature of this antimicrobial macrophage population in a subset of patients. This study identified conserved and distinct features of intestinal inflammation between parts of the small and large intestine undergoing similar inflammation conditions.

immunology↗

bioRxiv2020

A Versatile Soluble Siglec Scaffold for Sensitive and Quantitative Detection of Glycan Ligands

Sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin-type lectins (Siglecs) are immunomodulatory receptors that are regulated by their glycan ligands. A growing connection between Siglecs and human disease motivates improved methods to detect Siglec ligands. Here, we describe a new versatile set of Siglec-Fc proteins for glycan ligand detection. Enhanced sensitivity and selectivity are enabled through multimerization and avoiding Fc receptors, respectively. Using these Siglec-Fc proteins, Siglec ligands were systemically profiled on healthy and cancerous cells and tissues, revealing many unique patterns. Additional features enable the production of small, homogenous Siglec fragments and development of a quantitative ligand-binding mass spectrometry assay. Using this assay, the ligand specificities of several Siglecs were clarified. For CD33, we demonstrate that it recognizes both 2-3 and 2-6 sialosides in solution and on cells, which has implications for its link to Alzheimers disease susceptibility. These soluble Siglecs reveal the abundance of their glycan ligands on host cells as self-associated molecular patterns.

biochemistry↗

bioRxiv2020

Elucidation of Genome Polymorphisms in Emerging SARS-CoV-2

The COVID-19 pandemic is having a devastating effect on the healthcare system and the economy of the world. The unavailability of a specific treatment regime and a candidate vaccine yet opens up scope for new approaches and discoveries of drugs for mitigation of the sufferings of humankind due to the disease. The present isolated whole-genome sequences of SARS-CoV-2 from 11 different nations subjected to evolutionary study and genome-wide association study through in silico approaches including multiple sequence alignment, phylogenetic study through MEGA7 and have been analyzed through DNAsp respectively. These investigations recognized the nucleotide varieties and single nucleotide mutations/polymorphisms on the genomic regions as well as protein-coding regions. The resulted mutations have diversified the genomic contents of SARS-CoV-2 according to the altered nucleotides found in 11 genome sequences. India and Nepal have found to have progressively more distinct species of SARS-CoV-2 with variations in Spike protein and Nucleocapsid protein-coding sites. These genomic variations might be the explanation behind the less case fatality rate of India and Nepal dependent on the populaces. The anticipated idea of this investigation upgrades the information about genomic medication and might be useful in the planning of antibodies against SARS-CoV-2.

bioinformatics↗

bioRxiv2020

Genotypic and antigenic study of SARS-CoV-2 from an Indian isolate.

Coronaviruses (CoVs) are one of the largest groups of positive-sense RNA virus families within the Nidovirales order, which are further classified into four genera: alpha, beta, gamma, and delta. Coronaviruses have an extensive range of natural hosts and are known to be responsible for a broad spectrum of diseases in multiple species. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) that has unleashed a global threat to public health and the economy. Coronaviruses are extensively present in birds and mammals, with horseshoe bats (Rhinolophus affinis), being the reservoir for the ongoing SARS-CoV-2 that seems to have resulted from a zoonotic spillover to the human host, causing respiratory infections, lung injury and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome(ARDS). About six coronavirus serotypes are linked with the disease in humans, namely HCoV-229E, HCoV-NL63, HCoV-OC43, HCoV-HKU1, SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, and MERS-CoV. SARS-CoV-2 is the seventh CoV to infect humans. We analyzed the genome sequence of CoV-2 from isolates derived from China as well from India and encountered minute variations in their sequence. A cladogram analysis revealed the predominant strain circulating in India belongs to the A2a clad. We took one such strain (MT012098) and performed a rigorous in-silico genotypic and antigenic analysis to identify its relatedness to other strains. Further, we also performed a detailed prediction for B and T cell epitopes using BepiPred 2.0 server and NetCTL 1.2 server (DTU Bioinformatics), respectively. We hope this information may assist in an effective vaccine designing program against SARS-CoV-2.

biochemistry↗

bioRxiv2020

Age dependent trans-cellular propagation of human tau aggregates in Drosophila disease models

Tauopathies is a class of neurodegenerative disorders which involves the transformation of physiological tau into pathogenic tau. One of the prime causes reported to drive this conversion is tau hyperphosphorylation and the subsequent propagation of pathogenic protein aggregates across the nervous system. Although past attempts have been made to deduce the details of tau propagation, yet not much is known about its mechanism. A better understanding of this aspect of disease pathology can prove to be beneficial for the development of diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. In our work, we utilize the plethora of advantages procured by Drosophila to introduce a novel in-vivo tauopathy propagation model. For the first time, we demonstrate that the human tau (h-tau) possesses an intrinsic property to spread trans-cellularly in the fly nervous system irrespective of the tau allele or the neuronal tissue type. Aggregate migration restricted by targeted down-regulation of a specific kinase, elucidates the role of hyper-phosphorylation in its movement. On the contrary to the previous models, the present system enables a rapid, convenient and robust in-vivo study of tau migration pathology. Henceforth, the developed model would not only be immensely helpful in uncovering the mechanistic in-depths of tau propagation pathology but also aid in modifier and/or drug screening for amelioration of tauopathies.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2020

Genetically Encoded, Multivalent Liquid Glycan Array (LiGA)

The Central Dogma of Biology does not allow for the study of glycans using DNA sequencing. We report a "Liquid Glycan Array" (LiGA) platform comprising a library of DNA barcoded M13 virions that display 30-1500 copies of glycans per phage. A LiGA is synthesized by acylation of phage pVIII protein with a dibenzocyclooctyne, followed by ligation of azido-modified glycans. Pulldown of the LiGA with lectins followed by deep sequencing of the barcodes in the bound phage decodes the optimal structure and density of the recognized glycans. The LiGA is target agnostic and can measure the glycan-binding profile of lectins such as CD22 on cells in vitro and immune cells in a live mouse. From a mixture of multivalent glycan probes, LiGAs identifies the glycoconjugates with optimal avidity necessary for binding to lectins on living cells in vitro and in vivo; measurements that cannot be performed with canonical glass slide-based glycan arrays. DedicationThe paper is dedicated to Laura L. Kiessling on the occasion of her 60th birthday.

biochemistry↗

bioRxiv2020

Expanding the chemical space of synthetic cyclic peptides using a promiscuous macrocyclase from prenylagaramide biosynthesis

Cyclic peptides are excellent drug candidates, placing macrocyclization reactions at the apex of drug development. PatG and related dual-action proteases from cyanobactin biosynthesis are responsible for cleaving off the C-terminal recognition sequence and macrocyclizing the substrate to provide cyclic peptides. This reaction has found use in the enzymatic synthesis of diverse macrocycles. However, these enzymes function best on substrates that terminate with the non-proteinogenic thiazole/thiazoline residue, complicating synthetic strategies. Here, we biochemically characterize a new class of PatG-like macrocyclases that natively use proline, obviating the necessity of additional chemical or biochemical steps. We experimentally define the biochemical steps involved in synthesizing the widespread prenylagaramide-like natural products, including macrocyclization and prenylation. Using saturation mutagenesis, we show that macrocyclase PagG and prenyltransferase PagF are highly promiscuous, producing a library of more than 100 cyclic peptides and their prenylated derivatives in vitro. By comparing our results to known cyanobactin macrocyclase enzymes, we catalog a series of enzymes that collectively should synthesize most small macrocycles. Collectively, these data reveal that, by selecting the right cyanobactin macrocyclase, a large array of enzymatically synthesized macrocycles are accessible.

biochemistry↗

bioRxiv2020

Survival and Proliferation of T-cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia Depends on mTOR-regulated Glutamine Uptake and EAAT1 Activity

T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (T-ALL) is a cancer of the immune system. Approximately 20% of paediatric and 50% of adult T-ALL patients have refractory disease or relapse and die from the disease. To improve patient outcome new therapeutics are needed. With the aim to identify new therapeutic targets, we analysed the metabolic adaptations that T-ALL cells exhibit and found that glutamine uptake is essential for their proliferation. Isotope tracing experiments showed that glutamine fuels aspartate synthesis through the TCA cycle and that glutamine and glutamine-derived aspartate together supply three nitrogen atoms in purines and all but one atom in pyrimidine rings. We show that the glutamate-aspartate transporter EAAT1, which is normally only expressed in the CNS, is crucial for glutamine conversion to nucleotides and that T-ALL cell proliferation depends on EAAT1 function. Through this work, we identify EAAT1 as a novel therapeutic target for T-ALL treatment.

cancer biology↗

bioRxiv2020

Autophagy promotes cell and organismal survival by maintaining NAD(H) pools

Autophagy is an essential catabolic process that promotes clearance of surplus or damaged intracellular components1. As a recycling process, autophagy is also important for the maintenance of cellular metabolites during periods of starvation2. Loss of autophagy is sufficient to cause cell death in animal models and is likely to contribute to tissue degeneration in a number of human diseases including neurodegenerative and lysosomal storage disorders3-7. However, it remains unclear which of the many cellular functions of autophagy primarily underlies its role in cell survival. Here we have identified a critical role of autophagy in the maintenance of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+/NADH) levels. In respiring cells, loss of autophagy caused NAD(H) depletion resulting in mitochondrial membrane depolarisation and cell death. We also found that maintenance of NAD(H) is an evolutionary conserved function of autophagy from yeast to human cells. Importantly, cell death and reduced viability of autophagy-deficient animal models can be partially reversed by supplementation with an NAD(H) precursor. Our study provides a mechanistic link between autophagy and NAD(H) metabolism and suggests that boosting NAD(H) levels may be an effective intervention strategy to prevent cell death and tissue degeneration in human diseases associated with autophagy dysfunction.

cell biology↗

bioRxiv2020

Amino-alcohol Bio-conjugate of Naproxen Exhibits Anti-inflammatory Activity through NF-κB Signaling Pathway

Naproxen sodium (Ns) is a well-known synthetic compound used vastly as a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). Previously, we demonstrated that the hydrogels, made of Ns bio-conjugate (NBC), either with amino alcohol (NBC-1 and 2) or amino acid (NBC-3 and 4), displayed anti-inflammatory properties better than Ns, but the effectiveness was not well explored. Here, we investigated that NBC-2, conjugated with {gamma}-amino alcohol, significantly reduces the expression of pro-inflammatory proteins; such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase isoform-2 (COX-2), and the production of pro-inflammatory mediator nitric oxide (NO) in lipopolysaccharide and interferon-{gamma} (LPS/IFN-{gamma}) treated mouse macrophage RAW 264.7 cells, compared with bio-conjugation of {beta}-amino alcohol (NBC-1) or {beta}-amino acid (NBC-3) or -amino acid NBC (NBC-4). NBC-2 decreases the nuclear localization of transcription factors NF-{kappa}B by stabilizing its cytoplasmic functional inhibitor I{kappa}B. Moreover, NBC-2 also displays selective inhibitory effect towards COX-1 enzyme activity as determined by enzymatic assay and in silico molecular docking analysis. Thus, we suggest that NBC-2 may be used as a self-delivery anti-inflammatory drug as compared with other NBCs. TOC Graphic O_FIG O_LINKSMALLFIG WIDTH=200 HEIGHT=143 SRC="FIGDIR/small/901223v1_ufig1.gif" ALT="Figure 1"> View larger version (26K): org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@1ab255borg.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@121aa6eorg.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@13c4b86org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@1827207_HPS_FORMAT_FIGEXP M_FIG C_FIG

molecular biology↗

bioRxiv2019

Geochemical influences on nonenzymatic oligomerization of prebiotically relevant cyclic nucleotides

The spontaneous emergence of RNA on the early Earth continues to remain an enigma in the field of origins of life. Few studies have looked at the nonenzymatic oligomerization of cyclic nucleotides under neutral to alkaline conditions, in fully dehydrated state. Herein, we systematically investigated the oligomerization of cyclic nucleotides under prebiotically relevant conditions, where starting reactants were subjected to repeated dehydration-rehydration (DH-RH) regimes, like they would have been on an early Earth. DH-RH conditions, a recurring geological theme, are driven by naturally occurring processes including diurnal cycles and tidal pool activity. These conditions have been shown to facilitate uphill oligomerization reactions in terrestrial geothermal niches, which are hypothesized to be pertinent sites for the emergence of life. 2'-3' and 3'-5' cyclic nucleotides of one purine-based (adenosine) and one pyrimidine-based (cytidine) system were evaluated in this study. Additionally, the effect of amphiphiles was also investigated. Furthermore, to discern the effect of realistic conditions on this process, the reactions were also performed using hot spring water samples from an early Earth analogue environment. Our results showed that the oligomerization of cyclic nucleotides under DH-RH conditions resulted in intact informational oligomers. Amphiphiles increased the stability of, both, the starting monomers and the resultant oligomers. In analogue condition reactions, oligomerization of nucleotides and back-hydrolysis of the resultant oligomers was pronounced. Altogether, this study demonstrates how nonenzymatic oligomerization of cyclic purine and pyrimidine nucleotides, under laboratory-simulated and early Earth analogous conditions, could have resulted in RNA oligomers of a putative RNA World.

biochemistry↗

bioRxiv2019

Presence or absence of Ras-dimerization shows distinct kinetic signature in Ras-Raf interaction

In eukaryotes, MAPK pathways play a central role in making several important cellular decisions, including cell proliferation and development of an organism. Ras, a small GTPase, interacts with the protein Raf to create activated Ras-Raf complex (Raf dimer) that activates the downstream effectors in the ERK pathway, one of the many MAPK pathways. Malfunctioning Ras-Raf \"switches\" cause almost 30% of all known cancer. Hence, understanding Ras-Raf interaction is of paramount importance. Despite decades of research, the detailed mechanism of Ras-Raf interaction is still unclear. It has been hypothesized that Ras dimerization is necessary to create the activated Raf dimer. Although there are circumstantial evidences supporting the Ras dimerization hypothesis, direct proof of Ras dimerization is still inconclusive. In the absence of conclusive direct experimental proof, this hypothesis can only be examined through indirect evidences of Ras dimerization. In this paper, using a multi-scale simulation technique, we provide multiple criteria that distinguishes an activation mechanism involving Ras dimerization from another mechanism that does not involve Ras dimerization. The provided criteria will be useful in the investigation of not only Ras-Raf interaction but also other two-protein interactions.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2019

Anticipating critical transitions in epithelial-hybrid-mesenchymal cell-fate determination

In the vicinity of a tipping point, critical transitions occur when small changes in an input condition causes sudden, large and often irreversible changes in the state of a system. Many natural systems ranging from ecosystems to molecular biosystems are known to exhibit critical transitions in their response to stochastic perturbations. In diseases, an early prediction of upcoming critical transitions from a healthy to a disease state by using early warning signals is of prime interest due to potential application in forecasting disease onset. Here, we analyze cell-fate transitions between different phenotypes (epithelial, hybrid epithelial/mesenchymal (E/M) and mesenchymal states) that are implicated in cancer metastasis and chemoresistance. These transitions are mediated by a mutually inhibitory feedback loop microRNA-200/ZEB driven by the levels of transcription factor SNAIL. We find that the proximity to tipping points enabling these transitions among different phenotypes can be captured by critical slowing down based early warning signals, calculated from the trajectory of ZEB mRNA level. Further, the basin stability analysis reveals the unexpectedly large basin of attraction for a hybrid E/M phenotype. Finally, we identified mechanisms that can potentially elude the transition to a hybrid E/M phenotype. Overall, our results unravel the early warning signals that can be used to anticipate upcoming epithelial-hybrid-mesenchymal transitions. With the emerging evidence about the hybrid E/M phenotype being a key driver of metastasis, drug resistance, and tumor relapse; our results suggest ways to potentially evade these transitions, reducing the fitness of cancer cells and restricting tumor aggressiveness.\n\nSignificance StatementEpithelial-hybrid-mesenchymal transitions play critical roles in cancer metastasis, drug resistance, and tumor relapse. Recent studies have proposed that cells in a hybrid epithelial/mesenchymal phenotype may be more aggressive than those on either end of the spectrum. However, no biomarker to predict upcoming transitions has been identified. Here, we show that critical slowing down based early warning signals can detect sudden transitions among epithelial, hybrid E/M, and mesenchymal phenotypes. Importantly, our results highlight how stable a hybrid E/M phenotype can be, and how can a transition to this state be avoided. Thus, our study provides valuable insights into restricting cellular plasticity en route metastasis.

systems biology↗

bioRxiv2019

Bivalent and Broad Chromatin Domains Regulate Pro-metastatic Drivers in Melanoma

Chromatin deregulation is an emerging hallmark of cancer. However, the extent of epigenetic aberrations during tumorigenesis and their relationship with genetic aberrations are poorly understood. Using ChIP-sequencing for enhancers (H3K27ac and H3K4me1), promoters (H3K4me3), active transcription (H3K79me2) and polycomb (H3K27me3) or heterochromatin (H3K9me3) repression we generated chromatin state profiles in metastatic melanoma using 46 tumor samples and cell lines. We identified a strong association of NRAS, but not BRAF mutations, with bivalent states harboring H3K4me3 and H3K27me3 marks. Importantly, the loss and gain of bivalent states occurred on important pro-metastasis regulators including master transcription factor drivers of mesenchymal phenotype including ZEB1, TWIST1, SNAI1 and CDH1. Unexpectedly, a subset of these and additional pro-metastatic drivers (e.g. POU3F2, SOX9 and PDGFRA) as well as melanocyte-specific master regulators (e.g. MITF, ZEB2, and TFAP2A) were regulated by exceptionally wide H3K4me3 domains that can span tens of thousands of kilobases suggesting roles of this new epigenetic element in melanoma metastasis. Overall, we find that BRAF, NRAS and WT melanomas may use bivalent states and broad H3K4me3 domains in a specific manner to regulate pro-metastatic drivers. We propose that specific epigenetic traits - such as bivalent and broad domains - get assimilated in the epigenome of pro-metastatic clones to drive evolution of cancer cells to metastasis.

cancer biology↗

bioRxiv2019

Mutational Crosstalk between Nuclear Driver Genes and Mitochondrial DNA in Gingivobuccal Oral Cancer

Somatic alterations in nuclear and mitochondrial genomes are known to play important role in the initiation and progress of tumours. However, crosstalk between these two genomic components in tumours have not been well investigated till date. We have excavated evidence of such crosstalk in gingivobuccal oral cancer. We have identified significant correlation between somatic mutations in nuclear driver genes and mitochondrial genes in 89 gingivobuccal oral cancer patients. Strong positive correlation between nuclear driver genes CASP8, NOTCH1, USP9X, TRPM3 and mitochondrial genes has been observed. Patients having mutations in nuclear driver genes except TP53, were also shown to harbour higher mitochondrial mutation load. TP53 mutations were shown to be negatively correlated with somatic mutations in mitochondrial 12S rRNA and ATP6. Also, TP53 mutations were negatively correlated with mutations in NOTCH1, HRAS and USP9X. We have identified a number of nuclear genes coexpressed with mitochondrial genes, although their association with tumorigenesis could not be established. Our observations suggest that in the absence of mutations in TP53, mutations in mtDNA and other driver genes might aid in the progression of cancer in a complementary fashion.

genomics↗

bioRxiv2019

Compositional heterogeneity of protocellular membranes: Implications for emergence of mixed vesicular systems

Protocells are primitive cellular entities that are thought to have emerged during the dawn of life on Earth. Their membranes are considered to be made up of mixtures of single chain amphiphiles, such as fatty acids and their derivatives, moieties that would have been part of the complex prebiotic chemical landscape. In addition to their composition, the physico-chemical properties of these prebiological membranes would have been significantly affected and regulated by the physical environment that they were present in. In this study, the physico-chemical properties of two different chain length membrane systems were systematically characterized, under pertinent early Earth conditions. The membrane systems were designed to comprise a fatty acid and its alcohol and/or glycerol monoester derivative, to make a range of binary and tertiary vesicle combinations. Their properties were then evaluated as a function of multiple factors including their composition, stability under varying pH, Mg2+ ion concentrations and dilution regimes, and their permeability to small molecules. Our results demonstrate how these environmental constraints would have acted as important prebiotic selection pressures to shape the evolution of prebiological membranes. This study also illustrates how different fatty acid derivatives confer varying degree of stability when combined with their respective fatty acid moiety. Interestingly, when the membrane systems were subjected to multiple selection pressures in a consecutive manner, only the heterogeneous membrane systems survived the race. Our results illustrate that compositionally diverse membrane systems are more stable and robust to multiple selection pressures, thereby making them more suitable for supporting protocellular life.\n\nSignificance statementThe physico-chemical environment would have played an important role in shaping the composition and evolution of primitive membrane systems. This study demonstrates the importance of compositional heterogeneity on the stability of protomembrane systems under pertinent prebiotic selection pressures. Two different fatty acid based systems were mixed with their respective alcohol and/or glycerol monoester derivatives, to generate combinations of binary and tertiary membrane systems. Increasing chain length effected the physical property of the membranes thus affecting their stability. Furthermore, we also demonstrate how the head groups of the derivatives employed in this study (e.g. glycerol monoester and alcohol) contribute differently towards stabilizing the mixed membranes under a given selection condition, by discerning the molecular mechanism underlying this process. Our results illustrate how multiple selection pressures would have preferentially supported the emergence of compositionally heterogeneous membrane systems.

biochemistry↗