Biology subjects

S, S.

Publications and source records attributed to S, S..

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

bioRxiv2026

Aberrant microglial responses shape hypothalamic circuits in anorexia nervosa

Multimodal data indicates that microglia contribute to the pathophysiology of anorexia nervosa (AN). Here, we investigated microglial modulation of hypothalamic circuits, key regulators of energy balance, hypothesising an implication in the prolonged starvation and low body weight of AN. First, we generated microglia as well as hypothalamic and cortical neurons from patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) to discover upregulation of synapse-related genes in hypothalamic neurons, reduced microglial uptake of hypothalamic synaptic structures, and a microglial unresponsivness to the satiety hormone glucagon-like peptide-1. In an AN animal model (anx/anx mouse), spatial transcriptomics indicated hypothalamic microglial activation and disrupted microglia-synapse signaling. Despite an increased microglia density in both the arcuate nucleus (ARC) and the dorsomedial hypothalamus region (DMH), microglia displayed a decreased per cell uptake of synaptic material in Arc. Together, these data suggest that microglial responses shape hypothalamic circuits with possible implications for the maintained negative energy balance of AN.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2026

Dynamic microtubules drive yolk-cytoplasm segregation in the syncytial Drosophila embryo

Yolk-cytoplasm segregation is among the earliest spatial organization events in the developing embryo of many oviparous animals. The segregation process is intimately linked to early embryonic cleavage and pattern formation, and exhibits a wide range of spatial and temporal diversity. However, the underlying cytoskeletal mechanism remains largely unknown, except for a small number of species. Using quantitative live imaging, we investigated yolk segregation in the Drosophila embryo during the syncytial nuclear cycles 11-14. We find that the yolk vesicles move progressively inward in spatial and temporal coordination with the inward expanding microtubule networks that are nucleated from centrosomes positioned at the cortex, whereas cortical actin meshwork remains spatially restricted. Using the gnu RNAi embryo to decouple nuclear migration and division from cytoskeletal dynamics, we establish causality with targeted pharmacological disruption and find that microtubule dynamics is required for yolk segregation, while depolymerization of actin has no discernible effect. In support of a mechanism of growth-propelled passive displacement, microtubule plus end comets come in apparent contact with yolk vesicles, and injected, inert microbeads are displaced towards the embryo center presumably by the same pushing force. These findings identify microtubule polymerization as a predominant driver of yolk-cytoplasm segregation in Drosophila and suggest that diverse cytoskeletal mechanisms evolved to accomplish this crucial reorganization process

developmental biology↗

bioRxiv2026

Population-Scale Landscape of Mobile Element Insertions Across 82 Diverse Indian Populations

Mobile element insertions (MEIs) are a major source of structural variation in human DNA that can affect gene regulation and disrupt coding sequences. Population-scale MEI catalogs remain disproportionately skewed toward European-ancestry cohorts, with limited representation from India despite comprising nearly one-sixth of the global population and encompassing thousands of genetically distinct, largely endogamous communities. We characterized non-reference Alu and LINE1 insertions in 7,478 whole genomes from the GenomeIndia project, representing 82 populations selected to capture Indias geographic, linguistic, and social diversity. We cataloged 26,977 Alu and 7,075 LINE1 insertions, identifying 18,982 previously unreported insertions absent from existing publicly available MEI databases. Insertions bore signatures of purifying selection, depleted in exons and active chromatin and enriched in quiescent regions. MEI variants recapitulated the population structure seen in SNP data. Regulatory variation associated with MEIs was strongly population-structured, with a substantial fraction of European-defined MEI-eQTLs absent in the GenomeIndia cohort or carried at sharply different frequencies across communities, and MEIs in high linkage disequilibrium with GWAS variants. Sixty-nine insertions fell within exons, including a truncating LINE1 in CYP2J2 carried across five populations and a community-specific Alu in CABYR with a founder-effect signature. Collectively, these results reveal a layer of population-specific mobile element variation in Indian populations that is not captured by existing European-anchored reference resources. These variants represent potentially novel sources of genetic variation contributing to lack of transferability of disease associations across populations.

genomics↗

bioRxiv2026

Molecular Characterization of SARS-CoV-2 N Protein Interfaces: Implications for Oligomerization, RNA Binding, and Phase Separation

The SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid (N) protein is central to genomic RNA recognition, condensation, and packaging, yet the molecular organization of its multivalent N-N and N-RNA interaction network involved in this process remains unclear. Here, we define the oligomerization and RNA-binding interfaces of the C-terminal domain (CTD) and its flanking intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs), the leucine-rich helix (LH) and the C-terminal IDR (C-IDR), using size-exclusion chromatography (SEC), cross-linking, mutational studies and NMR spectroscopy. We identify discrete oligomerization interfaces within the CTD and C-IDR that drive higher-order assembly, and show, through liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) and electron microscopy (EM), that C-IDR residues are essential for RNA-induced condensate formation. Moreover, the mapping of RNA-binding residues highlights Arg277 as a conserved determinant of CTD-RNA recognition. Notably, the two IDRs exert opposing regulatory effects on RNA binding, with the C-IDR enhancing and the LH attenuating CTD-RNA interactions. Together, these findings reveal how cooperative interfaces between the CTD and its flanking IDRs orchestrate N-protein oligomerization and RNA condensate formation and highlight potential intervention sites for disrupting SARS-CoV-2 ribonucleoprotein assembly.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2025

A schizophrenia-associated radial glia cell state perturbs early human brain development

Multidisciplinary evidence support a neurodevelopmental origin for schizophrenia, yet the mechanistic translation of known risk factors remains poorly understood. In this study, we leverage multi-lineage, forebrain-patterned organoids derived from monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia, integrating single-cell transcriptomic and epigenomic profiling to uncover disease-associated gene expression and chromatin accessibility topics. By constructing fate probability maps, we identify an accelerated developmental trajectory emerging from a distinct, schizophrenia-associated radial glia cell state, and reveal unique interactions among schizophrenia risk genes through unbiased multimodal analyses. Further, we confirm that schizophrenia-enriched states persist in differentiated lineages and disrupt synaptic programs, accompanied by molecular and cellular phenotypes mimicking observed disease pathology. Collectively, our findings delineate an early disruption in forebrain development, providing novel mechanistic insights into the origins of schizophrenia risk.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2025

Biofortification of green seaweed Ulva with Vitamin B12 using Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus and Lactococcus lactis

One of the main causes of Vitamin B12 deficiency is insufficient dietary intake, especially among vegetarians and vegans. Seaweeds are emerging as sustainable biomass for producing value added products, including nutritionally enriched supplements. This study investigates the biofortification of green seaweed Ulva sp. with Vitamin B12 via co-fermentation using Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus and Lactococcus lactis, aiming to develop a probiotic supplement. Ulva sp. was harvested from Goan shores, and the bacterial strains were obtained from cheese and cultivated for use in fermentation. The rationale behind this study was to integrate the de novo synthesis of Vitamin B12 with the conversion of Vitamin B2 into 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole (DMB), leading to higher production of Vitamin B12, with the BluB enzyme serving as the key connecting factor. Vitamin B12 in fermented Ulva sp. was quantified using HPLC with a C18 column at 361 nm, with acetonitrile and water as the mobile phase. The highest concentration was observed after 72 hours of fermentation, reaching 19.6 g/mL, approximately five times higher than the control. These findings highlight the potential of Ulva sp. as a substrate for Vitamin B12 production through bacterial fermentation and its promising application as a probiotic supplement.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2025

PAM18-3, a J-domain protein, maintains mitochondrial integrity and plant growth and development in Arabidopsis thaliana

Mitochondrial protein import is indispensable for organelle biogenesis and function, and is powered by the evolutionarily conserved presequence translocase-associated motor (PAM) complex. In Arabidopsis thaliana, three paralogs: PAM18-1, PAM18-2, and PAM18-3, encode J-domain proteins homologous to yeast PAM18, which stimulates the ATPase activity of mitochondrial HSP70 (mtHSP70) during protein translocation. Here, we identify PAM18-3 as the most highly and ubiquitously expressed paralog and demonstrate its critical role in mitochondrial function and plant development. Genetic disruption of PAM18-3 caused severe vegetative and reproductive defects, including reduced root length, smaller rosette size with fewer leaves, decreased plant height, shorter siliques, reduced seed set, and increased seed abortion. These phenotypes were fully rescued in complemented lines expressing PAM18-3. Ultrastructural analyses revealed profound mitochondrial abnormalities in mutants, whereas chloroplast architecture remained unaffected. Functional assays showed reduced mitochondrial membrane potential, and altered respiratory flux with a compensatory induction of the alternative oxidase (AOX) pathway. Transcript profiling revealed upregulation of AOX genes and multiple components of the mitochondrial TIM23 import apparatus and associated chaperones. Import assays demonstrated reduced mitochondrial accumulation of canonical TIM23 substrates, including IDH, ATP{beta}, and SHMT1, confirming a defect in matrix protein translocation. Consistently, pam18-3 mutants accumulated elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS) and exhibited strong induction of mitochondrial dysfunction stimulon (MDS) genes, including key transcription factors mediating retrograde signaling. Together, our findings establish PAM18-3 as a central component of the mitochondrial protein import machinery, supporting plant growth and development in Arabidopsis thaliana.

plant biology↗

bioRxiv2025

Isolation and Probiotic Characterization of Lactic Acid Bacteria from the Phylloplanes of Edible and Culinary Leaves

The phylloplane of edible and culinary plants hosts diverse microbial communities, including underexplored lactic acid bacteria (LAB) with probiotic potential. This study isolated LAB from the leaf surfaces of eight plant species and evaluated their probiotic attributes. Isolates were tested for acid, bile, NaCl, and phenol tolerance; temperature resistance; haemolytic activity; antibiotic susceptibility; auto-aggregation; and hydrophobicity. All showed {gamma}-haemolysis, indicating non-pathogenicity. Lactobacillus acidophilus and LAB-10 demonstrated strong acid (pH 2.0-3.5) and bile tolerance, high hydrophobicity (72% and 60%), and strong auto-aggregation (42% and 36%). They tolerated up to 6% NaCl, 0.4% phenol, and grew optimally at 37-40{square}{degrees}C. Antibiotic resistance varied among isolates. These findings reveal the phylloplane as a promising reservoir of functionally potent probiotic LAB strains for potential use in functional foods and therapeutics. Graphical abstract O_FIG O_LINKSMALLFIG WIDTH=157 HEIGHT=200 SRC="FIGDIR/small/649317v2_ufig1.gif" ALT="Figure 1"> View larger version (93K): org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@10b8839org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@1c80c7org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@14a9635org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@1cb951d_HPS_FORMAT_FIGEXP M_FIG C_FIG Illustration of the isolation and screening of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) from the phylloplanes of edible and culinary plants, highlighting key probiotic traits. Eight plant species served as microbial reservoirs, with LAB isolates evaluated for gastrointestinal stress tolerance, NaCl and phenol resistance, non-hemolytic ({gamma}-haemolysis) behavior, auto-aggregation, and hydrophobicity. Lactobacillus acidophilus exhibited outstanding probiotic potential with 72% hydrophobicity and 42% auto-aggregation. This study reveals the phylloplane as a promising source of functional probiotic LAB with potential applications in functional foods and therapeutic development.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2024

A three-dimensional histological cell atlas of the developing human brain

The human brain is believed to contain a full complement of neurons by the time of birth together with a substantial amount of the connectivity architecture, even though a significant amount of growth occurs postnatally. The developmental process leading to this outcome is not well understood in humans in comparison with model organisms. Previous magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies give three-dimensional coverage but not cellular resolution. In contrast, sparsely sampled histological or spatial omics analyses have provided cellular resolution but not dense whole brain coverage. To address the unmet need to provide a quantitative spatiotemporal map of developing human brain at cellular resolution, we leveraged tape-transfer assisted serial section histology to obtain contiguous histological series and unbiased imaging with dense coverage. Interleaved 20 thick Nissl and H&E series and MRI volumes are co-registered into multimodal reference volumes with 60 isotropic resolution, together with atlas annotations and a stereotactic coordinate system based on skull landmarks. The histological atlas volumes have significantly more contrast and texture than the MRI volumes. We computationally detect cells brain-wide to obtain quantitative characterization of the cytoarchitecture of the developing brain at 13-14 and 20-21 gestational weeks, providing the first comprehensive regional cell counts and characterizing the differential growth of the different brain compartments. Morphological characteristics permit segmentation of cell types from histology. We detected and quantified brain-wide distribution of mitotic figures representing dividing cells, providing an unprecedented spatiotemporal atlas of proliferative dynamics in the developing human brain. Further, we characterized the abundance and distribution of Cajal-Retzius cells, a transient cell population that plays essential roles in organizing glutamatergic cortical neurons into layers. Together, our study provides an unprecedented quantitative window into the developing human brain and the reference volumes and coordinate space should be useful for integrating spatial omics data sets with dense histological context.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2024

Revisiting Aristotle's observation on bees: High floral constancy is common among bees but it is shaped by the locally abundant flowering species

Floral constancy is the tendency of a pollinator to sequentially visit flowers of the same species despite the availability of other rewarding plants. In a phytodiverse community, resource assurance may lead to pollinators displaying floral constancy to the most abundant plant species. We tested this by investigating if pollinators are floral constant on the abundant or the non-abundant plants within a seasonally flowering tropical community. We quantified floral constancy in three social (Apis spp.) and two solitary (non-Apis) Indian native bees using three approaches, that is by manually tracking the bees, analysing their pollen load, and examining pollen sacs of returning bees at their hive. We next examined in Apis cerana indica if constancy in individual bees translated to hive-level constancy. We found that in our community with distinct co-flowering patches, bees were constant to the most abundant species within a localised patch, and not to the most abundant species in the landscape. While the pollen loads from both the social and solitary bees suggested that they show high floral constancy (> 70% uni-dominant pollen), their values differed significantly (p < 0.0001). Finally, approximately 90% of individuals within a hive showed floral constancy (monolectic), but collectively, a hive displayed polylectic foraging. Our findings highlight that the foraging patterns of native pollinators has been understudied and is a critical first step towards connecting reproductive assurances to plant-pollinator dependencies in large landscapes.

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2024

A PthXo2B ortholog in Xanthomonas oryzae pv oryzae strain IX-221 acts as a major virulence factor on indica rice without activating a Clade III SWEET gene.

To infect rice, Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) deploys transcription activator-like effectors (TALEs) that specifically bind and upregulate host "susceptibility" (S) genes. 34-amino acid (aa) repeats in TALEs interact one-to-one with DNA bases. Variation at positions 12 and 13 in each repeat, the repeat-variable diresidue (RVD), determine specificity. Some repeat variants shorter or longer than 34 aa can disengage to accommodate a single base deletion in the target sequence. OsSWEET11, 13, and 14 are key S genes, targeted by different TALEs from diverse Xoo strains. xa13 is a SWEET11 allele lacking the TALE binding site and thus conferring resistance. xa13 is overcome by TALEs that activate SWEET13 or SWEET14. We report here that an xa13-compatible Xoo strain, IX-221, from India, harbours an ortholog of the SWEET14-targeting TALE PthXo3 and two orthologs of the SWEET13-cognate PthXo2, each with one or two 36-aa repeats capable of disengaging. One of the PthXo2 orthologs, PthXo2BIX-221, has a repeat region identical to the previously characterized PthXo2BPXO61, except for a two amino acid difference near the end of the 19th repeat. Like PthXo2BPXO61, PthXo2BIX-221 upregulates SWEET13 in japonica rice and no SWEET in indica rice, but unlike PthXo2BPXO61 it nonetheless renders indica rice susceptible, pointing to an alternative S gene. Further, a designer TALE (dTALE) constructed using a standard, consensus sequence for each repeat and RVDs identical to those of PthXo2BIX-221 failed to render indica rice susceptible. Alignment of the PthXo2BIX-221 repeats shows a departure from the consensus in each of two repeats carrying the RVD NN: the sequence MAIAN in place of VAIAS beginning at position 7. Together, the PthXo2BIX-221 results thus suggest that non-RVD sequence variation affects TALE targeting profiles. More broadly, the presence of the three aberrant repeat-harbouring TALEs in IX-221 suggests that widespread deployment of xa13 in India resulted in strains super-equipped to overcome it, capable of activating multiple SWEET genes and alleles as well as an apparent alternate S gene.

plant biology↗

bioRxiv2024

Ready, set, yellow! Color Preference of Indian Free-ranging Dogs

Most of the research on color vision related behaviors in dogs has involved training the dogs to perform visual discrimination tasks. We investigated the meaning of color to untrained Indian free-ranging dogs (FRDs). Using one-time multi-option choice tests for color preference in 134 adult dogs, we found the dogs to prefer yellow objects over blue or gray ones (p < 0.001, Cramers V = 0.433) while there was no preference between blue and gray (N = 102, p = 0.165). We next pitted a yellow object against a gray object that had food. Here, the dogs ignored the food to approach the yellow object first, both when the food was biscuit (N = 52, p < 0.001, Cramers V = 0.576) and chicken (N = 61, p < 0.001, Cramers V = 0.540), indicating the color preference to be quite strong. Color preference has previously been investigated in many other animals and has implications for behaviors like mate choice and foraging. Our study provides a new perspective into the ecology of Indian FRDs and might have implications for pet dogs as well, if they too show this preference. HighlightsO_LIIndian free-ranging dogs (FRDs) show preference toward the color yellow over blue and gray. C_LIO_LIIndian FRDs show no preference between blue and gray colors. C_LIO_LIAttraction towards a yellow object can be stronger than attraction towards food rewards for Indian FRDs. C_LI

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2023

Impact of acute chlorpyrifos toxicity on the histology and biochemistry of the stomach, intestine, and muscle of the Anabas testudineus

Chlorpyrifos is classified as an organophosphorus pesticide that exhibits properties of being a broad-spectrum insecticide, acaricide, and nematicide. It is characterized by its ability to degrade quickly and its non-persistent nature. The current investigation involved the determination of the LC50 value of chlorpyrifos on A. testudineus. The computed LC50 values were found to be 11.59, 8.82, 6.30, and 3.82 ppm for exposure durations of 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours, respectively. The levels of protein and glycogen in the stomach, gut, and muscle of A. testudineus, which were subjected to a concentration of 3.82 ppm (LC50 96 hours) chlorpyrifos for a duration of 96 hours, exhibited a notable reduction when compared to the control group. The stomach sections of A. testudineus, when subjected to a concentration of 3.82 ppm chlorpyrifos for a duration of 96 hours, exhibited degeneration of the mucosa layer and necrosis of the mucosa epithelium. The histopathological examination of the intestine revealed several notable findings, including the presence of a disintegrating serosa, a significantly enlarged muscularis layer, and observable damage to both the circular muscle layer and submucosa. Additionally, evidence of necrosis was observed within the mucosa layer. The muscle tissue exhibited degeneration inside the muscle bundles, characterized by the presence of discrete regions of necrosis and the development of vacuoles within the muscle bundles. The results of this study demonstrate that chlorpyrifos exhibits a significant level of toxicity towards A. testudineus, and it is important to note that the absence of mortality does not guarantee the maintenance of physiological well-being in this particular fish species.

zoology↗

bioRxiv2023

Kynurenic acid promotes activity-dependent synaptic pruning in schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by an excessive loss of synapses. Recent data suggest that this is due to increased microglia-mediated synaptic pruning. Here, we utilize human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived models to show that kynurenic acid (KYNA), an endogenous NMDA-receptor antagonist observed to be increased in the brains of individuals with schizophrenia, reduces neuronal activity and promote microglial uptake of synapses. In a human brain organoid model, we confirm reduced microglia-mediated synaptic pruning upon inhibiting the endogenous KYNA production. To verify our experimental data in a clinical context, we integrate large-scale transcriptomic and genetic datasets and show that KYNA-producing kynurenine aminotransferases (KATs) enrich for genes governing synaptic activity and genetic risk variants for schizophrenia. Together, these results link genetic risk variants for schizophrenia to elevated production of KYNA and excessive activity-dependent synaptic pruning, while implicating pharmacological inhibition of KATs as a strategy to avoid synapse loss in schizophrenia.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2023

Oligodendrocyte precursor cells engulf synapses in a model of the developing human forebrain

Recent work in animal models suggests the role of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) is not limited to oligodendrogenesis. Here, we report that OPCs derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells are capable of engulfing synaptosomes. We then develop a novel multi-lineage forebrain organoid in which OPCs alongside microglia display a spontaneous internalization of synaptic material in their phagolysosomes. Collectively, these findings suggest that OPCs contribute to synapse elimination in the developing human forebrain and provide a versatile platform for evaluating the interplay between microglia and OPCs in remodeling neuronal circuits in health and disease.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2023

Evaluation Of Effect Of Bacteria On The Surface Of The Dental Implant

BackgroundDental Implantology is the most preferred treatment among patients who are opting for the replacement of their missing teeth. It is said that the success of the dental depends on the effectiveness of the dental implant bonding to the maxilla/mandible. This effectiveness depends on many factors. The microbial flora surrounding the dental implant also affects the integrity of the dental implant. AimThe study aims to analyze any effect bacteria on the surface of the implant. Materials and methodsIn the present study, 10 sterile dental implants were taken. Plaque samples were collected from patients with poor oral hygiene, who underwent dental implants and were under review for more than one month to six months. It was incubated with broth at 37 degrees Celcius. The surface changes in the dental implant were then observed in a scanning electron microscope. ResultsThe SEM results show a significant difference in the surface texture of the implant. There were pits, small craters, and cracks on the surface. The sharpness of the screw thread had also been noticeably blunt. ConclusionThus the study concludes that bacteria have a significant effect on the surface of the dental implant.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2022

dnaE2 expression promotes genetic diversity and bacterial persistence in mycobacterial biofilms

The complex cellular architecture and the microenvironments within the biofilm give rise to a population that is both physiologically and genetically heterogeneous. Transcriptome analysis of Mycobacterium smegmatis in biofilm culture and its transition phase into planktonic growth was performed to identify the genetic basis of heterogeneity in the biofilm. While there was an increase in the expression of mycobacterial mutasome consisting of dnaE2, imuA, and imuB in the biofilm, the mutation burden was less compared to the planktonic culture. Deletion of dnaE2 causes lower mutation frequency and bacterial fitness in comparison to the parental strain in biofilm culture. The expression of dnaE2 contributes to a slower bacterial growth rate, potentially promoting persister formation. Our study uncovers the multiple benefits of dnaE2 expression in biofilm such as increasing genetic diversity and reducing growth rate; both of which are necessary for mycobacterial survival and adaptation.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2021

Elucidating the structural features of ABCA1 in its heterogeneous membrane environment.

ATP Binding Cassette Transporter A1 (ABCA1) plays an integral part in Reverse Cholesterol Transport (RCT) and is critical for maintaining lipid homeostasis. One theory of lipid efflux by the transporter (alternating access) proposes that ABCA1 harbours two different conformations that provide alternating access for lipid binding and release. This is followed by a sequestration via a direct interaction between ABCA1 and its partner, ApoA1. The alternative theory (lateral access) proposes that ABCA1 obtains lipids laterally from the membrane to form a temporary extracellular "reservoir". This reservoir contains an isolated lipid monolayer due to the net accumulation of lipids in the exofacial leaflet. Recently, a full-length Cryo-EM structure of this 2,261-residue transmembrane protein showed its discreetly folded domains and have detected the presence of a tunnel enclosed within ECDs but not in theTMDs giving it an outward-facing conformation. This structure was hypothesized to substantiate the lateral access theory, whereby ApoA1 obtained lipids from the proximal end laterally. Utilizing long time-scale multiple replica atomistic molecular dynamics simulations (MDS), we simulated the structure in a large heterogeneous lipid environment and found that along with several large conformational changes, the protein harbours a continuous tunnel that traverses the entire length of the protein. In this study, we have characterized ABCA1 and the lipid dynamics along with the protein-lipid interactions in the heterogeneous environment, providing novel insights into understanding ABCA1 conformation at an atomistic level.

biophysics↗