Human norovirus infection of primary B cells triggers immune activation in vitro
Human norovirus (HNoV) is a global health and socio-economic burden, estimated to infect every individual at least five times during their lifetime. The underlying mechanism for the potential lack of long-term immune protection from HNoV infections is not understood and prompted us to investigate HNoV susceptibility of primary human B cells and its functional impact. Primary B cells isolated from whole-blood were infected with HNoV-positive stool samples and harvested 3 days post infection (dpi) to assess viral RNA yield by RT-qPCR. A 3-18 fold increase in HNoV RNA yield was observed in 50-60% donors. Infection was further confirmed in B cells derived from splenic and lymph node biopsies. Next, we characterized infection of whole-blood derived B cells by flow cytometry in specific functional B cell subsets (naive CD27-IgD+, memory switched CD27+IgD-, memory unswitched CD27+IgD+ and double-negative CD27-IgD-). While susceptibility of subsets was similar, we observed changes in B cell subsets distribution upon infection that were recapitulated after treatment with HNoV virus-like particles and mRNA encoding for HNoV NS1-2 protein. Importantly, treatment of immortalized BJAB B cell lines with the predicted recombinant NS1 protein triggered cell proliferation, increased ATP production, and induced metabolic changes, as detected by means of CFSE/Ki67 staining, seahorse analysis and metabolomics, respectively. These data demonstrate the susceptibility of primary B cells to HNoV infection and suggest that the secreted NS1 protein affects B cell function, proliferation and metabolism in vitro, which could have implications for viral pathogenesis and immune response in vivo. ImportanceHuman norovirus (HNoV) is the most prevalent causative agent of gastroenteritis worldwide. Infection results in a self-limiting disease that can become chronic and severe in the immunocompromised, elderly and infants. There are currently no approved therapeutic and preventative strategies to limit the health and socio-economic burden associated with HNoV infections. Moreover, HNoV does not elicit life-long immunity as repeat infections are common, presenting a challenge for vaccine development. Given the importance of B cells for humoral immunity, we investigated susceptibility and impact of HNoV infection on human B cells. We found that HNoV replicates in human primary B cells derived from blood, spleen and lymph nodes specimens and induces functional changes in B cells, mediated in part by the non-structural protein NS1. Because of the secreted nature of NS1, we put forward the hypothesis that HNoV infection can modulate bystander B cell function with potential implications in systemic immune response.