Biology subjects

Murali, A.

Publications and source records attributed to Murali, A..

17 recordsLinked to original sources

bioRxiv2026

Plaque-associated oligodendrocyte proteostatic failure underlies myelin loss in Alzheimers disease

Alzheimers disease (AD) features amyloid-{beta} plaques and tau pathology, yet the mechanism underlying early and clinically significant myelin loss remains unresolved. Here, we report human iPSC-derived forebrain organoids with doxycycline-inducible expression of SOX10, OLIG2, and NKX6-2 (SON), which generate robust, mature oligodendrocytes and compact myelin in vitro and in vivo. Introducing amyloid precursor protein (APP) pathogenic mutations produces extracellular amyloid-{beta} plaques and phosphorylated tau, accompanied by reduced myelin basic protein (MBP) expression and disrupted myelin ultrastructure. Single-cell and spatial transcriptomics combined with amyloid plaque imaging reveal that oligodendrocytes in plaque-dense regions show pathological changes in calcium signaling, immune activation, lipid remodeling, and protein catabolic pathways. Notably, MBP protein is reduced despite elevated myelin-related transcription, suggesting plaque-induced degradation of myelin proteins. Consistent with this, proteasomal inhibition restores MBP protein levels and improves compact myelin ultrastructure in AD organoids. In human AD brain tissue, protein catabolic pathways are similarly upregulated with increasing plaque density. Together, these findings identify plaque-associated oligodendrocyte proteostatic failure as a candidate mechanism of myelin loss and a potential therapeutic pathway in AD.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2026

Phenology of 50 tree species across 9 years in a South Asian tropical rainforest indicates complex influence of climate, traits, and phylogeny

In relatively aseasonal tropical rainforests, few studies have explored long-term phenological patterns of a high diversity of tree species in relation to climate, phylogeny, and functional traits. In these systems, short-duration seasonal pulses of irradiance and water deficit are expected to provide narrower windows for leafing and flowering and wider windows for fruiting across prolonged wet seasons, potentially mediated by functional traits and phylogenetic relatedness. Here, we document leafing, flowering, and fruiting phenology of 50 tree species (920 - 1077 trees, 10 - 42 trees/species) monitored monthly over an 9-y period (2017 - 26) in a relatively aseasonal south Asian tropical rainforest in the Anamalai Hills, Western Ghats, India. We examined correlations between climatic variables (irradiance, daylength, temperature, precipitation) and tree phenology and Mantel correlations among similarity in monthly phenology, functional traits (wood density, seed size, and maximum height), and phylogenetic relatedness. We then investigated the phylogenetic signal of phenological traits (frequency, amplitude, duration, and peak month) using Pagels {lambda}. Leaf flushing and flowering showed distinct seasonality and negative associations with daylength and precipitation, whereas fruiting showed greater temporal spread and weaker associations with climate. Functional traits or phylogeny did not significantly influence leaf flushing and flowering, whereas dissimilarity in fruiting was correlated with phylogenetic distance and peak fruiting month showed a significant phylogenetic signal ({lambda} = 0.96). The results indicate that in relatively aseasonal tropical rainforests, proximate climatic cues more strongly influence leaf flushing and flowering, whereas phylogenetic constraints affect timing of fruiting and may cause lineage-specific vulnerabilities to climate change.

ecology↗

bioRxiv2025

Insect herbivory on restored rainforest seedlings weakened by neighbours but unaffected by invasive coffee

Restoration of degraded tropical forests is often impeded by invasive species. For regenerating native seedlings, the presence of invasives in the neighbourhood can alter insect herbivory patterns, ultimately shaping restoration trajectories; however, such indirect effects are rarely examined. Here, we investigated the effect of robusta coffee (Coffea canephora) - a shade-tolerant invasive species under closed-canopy secondary forests in the Western Ghats - on the incidence of herbivory (proportion of leaves with any sign of damage) and the extent of leaf damage (percentage leaf area consumed) in seedlings of 10 rainforest species in plots from which coffee plants were either weeded out or left intact. We further examined whether local neighbourhood densities of coffee and other saplings, and species leaf traits, explained herbivory patterns. Removal of invasive coffee did not influence herbivory incidence or the extent of damage across our focal species. However, the incidence of herbivory declined with increasing neighbourhood plant density, suggesting that neighbourhood plants provide a resource dilution effect. Both incidence and extent of herbivore damage were strongly species-specific and partly explained by leaf traits: greater leaf carbon content was correlated with lower herbivory incidence. Contrary to expectations, plants with resource-acquisitive traits (high leaf nitrogen and specific leaf area) experienced lower incidence of herbivory and extent of damage. Our findings suggest that in this system, the indirect effects via herbivores are perhaps not as important in influencing restoration as the more direct effects of invasive species, such as competition for resources.

ecology↗

bioRxiv2025

A single-cell atlas of ribosomal protein heterogeneity across human tissues reveals phenotypes of biological and clinical significance

Ribosomes, once considered homogenous, exhibit dynamic compositional heterogeneity driven by differential ribosomal protein (RP) gene expression, modulating translational control. The exact cellular contributions to ribosomal heterogeneity in human tissues and their biological or clinical significance remain largely unknown. This study addresses these by mapping the expression of 76 cytoplasmic RP genes across 161 cell types from 15 human tissues using single-cell RNA sequencing from the Human Cell Atlas. We reveal extensive tissue- and cell-type-specific RP expression patterns, with RPL23, RPS20, RPS17 and RPL27A showing variability across most tissues. The testis cells exhibited the greatest variability and the largest number of variable RP genes, with distinct RP signatures distinguishing germ and somatic lineages; these signatures form temporally coordinated expression modules throughout spermatogenesis. In the context of disease, a comparative analysis of male infertility patients revealed widespread RP gene dysregulation in testicular cell types, highlighting the importance of proper RP composition for reproductive health. Furthermore, given the link between RP gene mutations and inherited anaemia syndromes, we investigated RP gene expression during erythropoiesis. We observed disrupted RP gene expression in Diamond-Blackfan Anaemia patients, contrasting with stable patterns in normal erythropoiesis. Our findings underscore the underappreciated cellular specificity and dynamic regulation of RP gene expression, strongly implicating ribosome compositional heterogeneity as fundamental to both cellular identity and disease pathogenesis.

systems biology↗

bioRxiv2025

Chemical activity profiling reveals how exposure to drugs or dietary compounds alters gut microbial biotransformation capacity

The gut microbiome catalyzes biotransformation reactions that influence intestinal absorption as a basis of microbiome-host interactions. A better understanding of microbiota biotransformation capacity, and its alteration in dysregulated states, would enable the prediction of individual responses to drugs and toxins and improve safety assessment. Here, we profiled chemical activities in rat gut microbiota ex vivo, and quantified biotransformation capacity changes induced by oral exposure to eight drugs and dietary compounds: tobramycin, colistin, acesulfame potassium, saccharin, bovine serum albumin (BSA), meropenem, doripenem, and daidzein. We implemented an approach involving inoculation with metabolic probes during microbiota fermentations and measured their degradation. In most exposure groups, we observed no alteration of microbiota biotransformation capacity, however, we detected significant alterations in biotransformation rates after exposure to meropenem, doripenem and tobramycin. Interestingly, common patterns of biotransformation capacity were observed in the gut microbiomes from rats exposed to carbapenems and partially shared in microbiomes exposed to tobramycin. These results aligned well with prior metagenomic and metabolomic findings. Further, correlations between microbial taxa and reaction rates were assessed to establish a link between specific bacteria and probe degradation. This functionally relevant strategy revealed alterations of microbiota biotransformation capacity, as induced by in vivo exposures.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2024

Gravitational effect on the cell in bio-fluid suspension

The growing interest in space exploration and human spaceflight has highlighted the critical challenges posed by microgravity on human physiology. One such challenge is the behavior of immune and red blood cells, which primarily rely on hematic or lymphatic streams (biofluids) for transport. This study aims to quantitatively address the puzzle of how red blood cells are influenced by gravity when they are suspended in bio-fluid. The Dissipative Particle Dynamics (DPD) approach was used to model blood and the cell by applying gravity as an external force along the vertical axis and varied from 0g to 2g during parameter sweeps. Key metrics, including Elongation and Deformation indices, pitch angle, and normalized center of mass, were utilized to assess cellular behavior. Results revealed that gravity induces shape changes and spatial alignment in red blood cells. The Elongation Index and the normalized center of mass declined linearly with the applied gravity. Correlation analysis showed a strong correlation between applied gravity and the aforementioned variables. Additionally, forces acting on the cell, such as drag, shear stress, and solid forces, diminished as gravitational force increased. Further analysis indicates that increasing gravity affected the cells velocity, resulting in prolonged proximity to vessel walls and intensified viscous interactions with surrounding fluid particles, thereby triggering morphological changes. This study provides crucial insights into the biophysical effects of gravity on the red blood cell and presents a significant step toward understanding cellular dynamics under altered gravitational conditions.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2023

Effects of sampling methodology on phenology indices: insights from sites across India and modelling

Plant phenology is the study of timing and extent of leaf, flower, and fruit production. Phenology data are used to study drivers of cyclicity and seasonality of plant life-history stages, interactions with organisms such as pollinators, and effects of global change factors. Indices such as timing of phenological events, proportion of individuals in a particular phenophase, seasonality, and synchrony have often been used to summarise plant phenology data. However, these indices have specific utilities and limitations and may be sensitive to sampling methodology, making cross-site comparisons challenging, particularly when data collection methods vary in terms of sample size, observation frequency, and the resolution at which phenophase intensity scores/values are recorded. We use fruiting phenology data from tropical trees across five sites in India to study the effects of sampling methodology on two indices: an index of population-level synchrony (overlap), and an index of seasonality. We supplement these results with simulations of fast- and slow-changing phenologies to test for the effects of sampling methodology on these indices. We found that the overlap index is sensitive to the phenophase intensity measurement resolution--with coarser intensity measures leading to overestimation of the overlap index. The seasonality index, on the other hand, was not affected by intensity resolution. Simulations indicated that finer intensity resolution is more important than frequency of observation to accurately estimate population synchrony and seasonality for fast- and slow-changing phenophases. Based on our findings, we provide recommendations for study design of future tropical tree phenology research, particularly for long-term or cross-site studies.

ecology↗

bioRxiv2023

Structure and dynamics of secondary and mature rainforests: insights from South Asian long-term monitoring plots

We assessed tree community and carbon dynamics over 5 years in two 1-ha long-term ecosystem monitoring plots, one each in mature tropical rainforests (MR) and 10-year post-agroforestry secondary rainforests (SR) in Indias Western Ghats mountains. Both plots were established in 2017 and monitored annually six times. We expected (1) higher tree diversity, distinct species composition, and greater carbon stock in MR; (2) higher carbon sequestration rates in SR; and (3) carbon dynamics shaped by growth and mortality in SR and MR, respectively. The SR plot had fewer species (67 vs. 84), stored substantially less carbon (76 vs. 193 Mg), and comprised a distinct community with fewer late-successional species than MR. SR gained 5.8 Mg carbon, due to tree growth exceeding losses from mortality, while in MR mortality exceeded growth and recruitment resulting in a 3.3 Mg carbon decline over five years. While MR had higher tree diversity, carbon stocks and relatively intact composition, the high rates of biodiversity and carbon accrual in SR highlight the conservation and climate significance of post-agroforestry secondary forests. Moderate carbon losses noted here in MR, as in other mature South Asian tropical forests, is a cause for concern under ongoing climate change.

ecology↗

bioRxiv2023

Covalent Attachment of Horseradish Peroxidase to Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes for Hydrogen Peroxide Detection

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) are desirable nanoparticles for sensing biological analytes due to their photostability and intrinsic near-infrared fluorescence. Previous strategies for generating SWCNT nanosensors have leveraged nonspecific adsorption of sensing modalities to the hydrophobic SWCNT surface that often require engineering new molecular recognition elements. An attractive alternate strategy is to leverage pre-existing molecular recognition of proteins for analyte specificity, yet attaching proteins to SWCNT for nanosensor generation remains challenging. Towards this end, we introduce a generalizable platform to generate protein-SWCNT-based optical sensors and use this strategy to synthesize a hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) nanosensor by covalently attaching horseradish peroxidase (HRP) to the SWCNT surface. We demonstrate a concentration-dependent response to H2O2, confirm the nanosensor can image H2O2 in real-time, and assess the nanosensors selectivity for H2O2 against a panel of biologically relevant analytes. Taken together, these results demonstrate successful covalent attachment of enzymes to SWCNTs while preserving both intrinsic SWCNT fluorescence and enzyme function. We anticipate this platform can be adapted to covalently attach other proteins of interest including other enzymes for sensing or antibodies for targeted imaging and cargo delivery.

bioengineering↗

bioRxiv2023

In-silico identification, characterization, and expression analysis of RNA recognition motif (RRM) containing RNA binding proteins in Aedes aegypti

BackgroundRNA binding proteins (RBPs) are the proteins that bind RNAs and regulate their functioning. RBPs in mosquitoes are gaining attention due to their ability to bind flaviviruses and regulate their replication and transmission. Despite their relevance, RBPs in mosquitoes have not been explored much. In this study, we screened the whole genome of Aedes aegypti, the primary vector of several pathogenic viruses, and identified the proteins containing RNA recognition motif (RRM), the most abundant protein domain in eukaryotes. ResultsUsing several in-silico strategies, a total of 135 RRM containing RBPs were identified in Ae. aegypti. The proteins were characterized based on their available annotations and the sequence similarity with the Drosophila melanogaster. Ae. aegypti RRM containing RBPs included serine/arginine-rich (SR) proteins, polyadenylate binding proteins (PABP), heteronuclear ribonucleoproteins (hnRNP), small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNP), splicing factors, eukaryotic initiation factors, transformers, nucleolysins, etc. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the proteins and the domain organisation is conserved among Ae. aegypti, Bombyx mori and Drosophila melanogaster. However, the gene length and the intron-exon organisation varied across the insect species. Expression analysis of the genes encoding RBPs using publicly available RNA sequencing data for different developmental time points of the mosquito life cycle starting from the ovary and eggs up to the adults revealed stage-specific expression with several genes preferentially expressed in early embryonic stages and blood-fed female ovary. ConclusionsThis is the first database for the Ae. aegypti RBPs that can serve as the reference base for future investigations. The stage-specific genes can be further explored to determine their role in mosquito growth and development with a focus to develop novel mosquito control strategies.

bioinformatics↗

bioRxiv2022

8-HQA Adjusts the Number and Diversity of Bacteria in the Gut Microbiome of Spodoptera littoralis

Quinolinic carboxylic acids are known for their metal ion chelating properties in insects, plants and bacteria. The larval stages of the lepidopteran pest, Spodoptera littoralis, produce 8-hydroxyquinoline-2-carboxylic acid (8-HQA) in high concentrations from tryptophan in the diet. At the same time, the larval midgut is known to harbor a bacterial population. The motivation behind the work was to investigate whether 8-HQA is controlling the bacterial community in the gut by regulating the concentration of metal ions. Knocking out the gene for kynurenine 3-monooxygenase (KMO) in the insect using CRISPR/Cas9 eliminated production of 8-HQA and significantly increased bacterial numbers and diversity in the larval midgut. Adding 8-HQA to the diet of knockout larvae caused a dose-dependent reduction of bacterial numbers with minimal effects on diversity. Enterococcus mundtii dominates the community in all treatments, probably due to its highly efficient iron uptake system and production of the colicin, mundticin. Thus host factors and bacterial properties interact to determine patterns of diversity and abundance in the insect midgut.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2022

Importance Of Small Diameter Woody Plants And Treelet Species In Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest Of Southern Western Ghats, India

Tropical forests have long been accepted for their productivity and ecosystem services on account of their high diversity and stand structural attributes. In spite of their significance, tropical forests, and especially those of Asia, remain understudied. Until recently, most forest inventories in Asia have concentrated on trees 10 cm in diameter. Floristic composition, plant species diversity, above ground biomass, basal area and diversity were investigated across different life form and two-diameter classes in a large scale 10-ha plot, in the undisturbed tropical seasonal rain forest of Southern Western Ghats, Kerala, India. Regeneration pattern of the study area was examined by evaluating fishers alpha and IVI (Important Value Index) across three layer of vegetation (seedling, sapling, and tree). Within the plot, we recorded 25,390 woody plant species[≥] 1 cm dbh from 45 families, 91 genera, and 106 species. Plant density was 2539 woody individuals per hectare, with a basal area of 47.72 m2/ha and an above-ground biomass of 421.77 Mg/ha. By basal area, density, and frequency, the Rubiaceae, Sapotaceae, and Malvaceae families were the most important. Small-diameter trees (1 cm [≤] dbh [≤]10 cm) found to be 78 percent of the total tree population, 20.2 percent of the basal area, and 1.4 percent of the aboveground biomass. They also possessed 6 percent more diversity at the family level, 10% more diversity at the genus level, and 12% more diversity at the species level than woody individuals under 10 cm dbh.. Woody individuals of treelets life form and small-diameter classes were much more diverse and dense than the other groups, indicating that results based only on larger canopy trees and larger diameter class may be not an appropriate representation of the diversity status of a particular tropical forest type. Lower density of individuals in initial girth class indicates the vulnerability of the forest system to anthropogenic, natural disturbance and a changing climate. Reduce the minimum diameter limit down to 1 cm, in contrast to 10 cm limit used in most of the evergreen forest inventories, revealed a high density and diversity in thelower stories.

ecology↗

bioRxiv2021

FH loss in RPE cells causes retinal degeneration in a human RPE-porcine retinal explant co-culture model

Age-related Macular degeneration (AMD) is a degenerative disease of the macula affecting the elderly population. Treatment options are limited, partly due to the lack of understanding of AMD pathology and the sparse availability of research models, that replicate the complexity of the human macula and the intricate interplay of the genetic, aging and life-style risk factors contributing to AMD. One of the main genetic risks associated with AMD is located on Complement Factor H (CFH) gene, leading to an amino acid substitution in the FH protein (Y402H). However, the mechanism of how this FH variant promotes the onset of AMD remains unclear. Previously, we have shown that FH deprivation in RPE cells, via CFH silencing, leads to increased inflammation, metabolic impairment and vulnerability towards oxidative stress. In this study, we established a novel co-culture model comprised of CFH silenced RPE cells and porcine retinal explants derived from the visual streak of the porcine eyes, closely resembling the human macula. We show that retinae exposed to FH-deprived RPE cells show signs of retinal degeneration, with rod cells being the first cells to undergo degeneration. Moreover, via Raman analyses, we observe that the main changes involve the mitochondria and lipid composition of the co-cultured retinae upon FH loss. Interestingly, the detrimental effects of FH loss in RPE cells on the neuroretina were independent of glial cell activation and external complement sources. Moreover, we show that the co-culture model is also suitable for human retinal explants, and we observed a similar trend when RPE cells deprived of FH were co-cultured with human retinal explants from a single donor eye. Our findings highlight the importance of RPE derived FH for retinal homeostasis and provide a valuable model for AMD research.

cell biology↗

bioRxiv2021

PKC-ε Regulates Vesicle Delivery and Focal Exocytosis for Efficient IgG-mediated Phagocytosis

PKC-{varepsilon} is required for membrane addition during IgG-mediated phagocytosis; its role in this process is ill-defined. High resolution imaging revealed that PKC-{varepsilon} exits the Golgi and enters phagosomes on vesicles that then fuse. TNF- and PKC- colocalize at the Golgi and on vesicles that enter the phagosome. Loss of PKC-{varepsilon} and TNF- delivery upon nocodazole treatment confirmed vesicular transport on microtubules. That TNF-+ vesicles are not delivered in macrophages from PKC-{varepsilon} null mice, or upon dissociation of the Golgi-associated pool of PKC-{varepsilon}, implicates Golgi-tethered PKC-{varepsilon} as a driver of Golgi-to-phagosome trafficking. Finally, we established that PKC-{varepsilon}s regulatory domain is sufficient for delivery of TNF-+ vesicles to the phagosome. These studies reveal a novel role for PKC-{varepsilon} in focal exocytosis: its regulatory domain drives Golgi-derived vesicles to the phagosome while catalytic activity is required for their fusion. This is one of the first examples of a PKC requirement for vesicular trafficking and describes a novel function for a PKC regulatory domain. SummaryGolgi-tethered PKC-{varepsilon} regulates vesicle trafficking along phagosomally-directed microtubules and vesicle fusion into forming phagosomes. Unexpectedly, the regulatory domain is sufficient for vesicle delivery. Graphical AbstractPKC-{varepsilon} is required for Golgi-to-phagosome trafficking. Golgi-tethered PKC-{varepsilon}+ vesicles carry TNF- to IgG phagosomes. Dissociation of PKC-{varepsilon} from the Golgi with PIK93 or expression of hSac1-K2A prevents vesicle delivery. The regulatory domain of PKC-{varepsilon} ({varepsilon}RD) is sufficient for vesicle delivery, but not fusion. Created with BioRender.com O_FIG O_LINKSMALLFIG WIDTH=200 HEIGHT=113 SRC="FIGDIR/small/443102v1_ufig1.gif" ALT="Figure 1"> View larger version (32K): org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@197962org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@7037f6org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@16a0610org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@1b40a4a_HPS_FORMAT_FIGEXP M_FIG C_FIG

immunology↗

bioRxiv2020

Survival strategies of Enterococcus mundtii in the gut of Spodoptera littoralis : a live report

The complex interaction between a higher organism and its resident gut flora is a subject of immense interest in the field of symbiosis. Many insects harbor a complex community of microorganisms in their gut. Larvae of Spodoptera littoralis, a lepidopteran pest which is prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions of the world, have a tube-like gut structure containing a simple bacterial community. This community varies both spatially (along the length of the gut) and temporally (during the life cycle of the insect). To monitor the dynamics and rapid adaptation of microbes to the gut conditions, a GFP-tagged reporter E. mundtii was constructed. After feeding to early instar S. littoralis larvae, the tagged-microbes recovered from the fore and hind guts by flow cytometry. The fluorescent reporter confirmed the persistence of E. mundtii in the gut. RNA-sequencing of the sorted bacteria highlighted various strategies that the symbiont employs to survive, including upregulated pathways for tolerating alkaline stress, forming biofilms and two-component signaling systems, resisting oxidative stress and quorum sensing. Although these symbionts depend on the host for amino acid and fatty acids, differential regulation among various metabolic pathways points to an enriched lysine synthesis pathway in the hindgut of the larvae.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2019

Surface Modification Effects on Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes for Multimodal Optical Applications

Optical nanoscale technologies often implement covalent or noncovalent strategies for the modification of nanoparticles, whereby both functionalizations are leveraged for multimodal applications but can affect the intrinsic fluorescence of nanoparticles. Specifically, single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) can enable real-time imaging and cellular delivery; however, the introduction of covalent SWCNT sidewall functionalizations often attenuates SWCNT fluorescence. Herein, we leverage recent advances in SWCNT covalent functionalization chemistries that preserve the SWCNTs pristine graphitic lattice and intrinsic fluorescence and demonstrate that such covalently functionalized SWCNTs maintain fluorescence-based molecular recognition of neurotransmitter and protein analytes. We show that the covalently modified SWCNT nanosensor fluorescence response towards its analyte is preserved for certain nanosensors, presumably dependent on the steric hindrance introduced by the covalent functionalization that hinders noncovalent interactions with the SWCNT surface. We further demonstrate that these SWCNT nanosensors can be functionalized via their covalent handles to self-assemble on passivated microscopy slides, and discuss future use of these dual-functionalized SWCNT materials for multiplexed applications.

bioengineering↗

bioRxiv2019

Integrated Approach On Degaradtion Of Azo Dyes Using Laccase Enzyme And Nanoparticle With Its Interaction By In Silco Analysis

Azo dyes, released by the textile industries causes severe damage to the environment and living organisms. The degradation of azo dyes is widely studied using enzymatic methods. Laccase, is a copper containing enzyme that degrades the azo dyes into less toxic compounds. In this work, Laccase enzyme produced by the alkaliphile Pseudomonas mendocina in the degradation of mixed azo dye showed 0.386 U/Ml activity at pH 8.5. Combination of enzymatic and green synthesised nanoparticle were used in the degradation mixed azo dye. Laccase used in the degradation of mixed azo dyes showed 58.46% in 72 hours while the photocatalytic degradation of mixed azo dyes showed 15.98%. The degradation of azo dyes using copper iodide nanoparticle resulted in 15.835% of mixed azo dye degradation. But it was noticed that combined method removed 62.35% of mixed azo dyes in 60 minutes. Interaction of laccase enzyme with azo dyes using in silico analysis predicted the binding energy of RR (-7.19 kcal/mol), RB (-8.57 kcal/mol) and RBL (-9.17 kcal/mol).

microbiology↗