Structure-function analysis of 1-hydroxypioglitazone, a major in vivo metabolite of the PPARγ agonist pioglitazone
The thiazolidinedione (TZD) pioglitazone (Pio) is an FDA-approved drug for type 2 diabetes mellitus that binds and activates the nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR{gamma}). Although TZDs have potent antidiabetic effects, they also display harmful side effects that have necessitated a better understanding of their mechanisms of action. In particular, little is known about the effect of in vivo TZD metabolites on the structure and function of PPAR{gamma}. Here, we present a structure-function comparison of Pio and a major in vivo metabolite, 1-hydroxypioglitazone (PioOH). PioOH displayed a lower binding affinity and reduced potency in coregulator recruitment assays compared to Pio. To determine the structural basis of these findings, we solved an X-ray crystal structure of PioOH bound to PPAR{gamma} ligand-binding domain (LBD) and compared it to a published Pio-bound crystal structure. PioOH exhibited an altered hydrogen bonding network that could underlie its reduced affinity and potency compared to Pio. Solution-state structural analysis using NMR spectroscopy and hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (HDX-MS) analysis revealed that PioOH stabilizes the PPAR{gamma} activation function-2 (AF-2) coactivator binding surface better than Pio. In support of AF-2 stabilization, PioOH displayed stabilized coactivator binding in biochemical assays and better transcriptional efficacy (maximal transactivation response) in a cell-based assay that reports on the activity of the PPAR{gamma} LBD. These results, which indicate that Pio hydroxylation affects both its potency and efficacy as a PPAR{gamma} agonist, contribute to our understanding of PPAR{gamma}-binding drug metabolite interactions and may assist in future PPAR{gamma} drug design efforts.