Large herbivorous wildlife and livestock differentially influence the relative importance of different sources of carbon for riverine food webs
In many regions around the world, large populations of native wildlife have declined or been replaced by livestock grazing areas and farmlands, with consequences on terrestrial-aquatic ecosystems connectivity and trophic resources supporting food webs in aquatic ecosystems. The river continuum concept (RCC) and the riverine productivity model (RPM) predict a shift of carbon supplying aquatic food webs along the river: from terrestrial inputs in low-order streams to autochthonous production in mid-sized rivers. Here, we studied the influence of replacing large wildlife (mainly hippos) with livestock on the relative importance of C3 vegetation, C4 grasses and periphyton on macroinvertebrates in the Mara River, which is an African montane-savanna river known to receive large subsidy fluxes of terrestrial carbon and nutrients mediated by LMH, both wildlife and livestock. Using stable carbon ({delta}13C) and nitrogen ({delta}15N) isotopes, we identified spatial patterns of the relative importance of allochthonous carbon from C3 and C4 plants (woody vegetation and grasses, respectively) and autochthonous carbon from periphyton for macroinvertebrates at various sites of the Mara River and its tributaries. Potential organic carbon sources and invertebrates were sampled at 80 sites spanning stream orders 1 to 7, various catchment land uses (forest, agriculture and grasslands) and different loading rates of organic matter and nutrients by LMH (livestock and wildlife, i.e., hippopotamus). The importance of different sources of carbon along the river did not follow predictions of RCC and RPM. First, the importance of C3 and C4 carbon was not related to river order or location along the fluvial continuum but to the loading of organic matter (dung) by both wildlife and livestock. Notably, C4 carbon was important for macroinvertebrates even in large river sections inhabited by hippos. Second, even in small 1st -3rd order forested streams, autochthonous carbon was a major source of energy for macroinvertebrates, and this was fostered by livestock inputs fuelling aquatic primary production throughout the river network. Importantly, our results show that replacing wildlife (hippos) with livestock shifts river systems towards greater reliance on autochthonous carbon through an algae-grazer pathway as opposed to reliance on allochthonous inputs of C4 carbon through a detrital pathway.