Levy, C. C. | bioRxiv Science

bioRxiv2026

Chronic ethanol self-administration alters dopamine in the caudate nucleus and putamen of rhesus macaques in a sex-dependent manner

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) affects over 28 million people in the U.S and is associated with neurobiological alterations, including in the basal ganglia. Within the basal ganglia, the caudate nucleus (caudate) and putamen are implicated in AUD due to their roles in ethanol reinforcement, with the caudate receiving inputs from cortico-associative areas and the putamen receiving inputs from somatosensory areas, supporting goal-directed and habitual behaviors respectively. These distinct behavioral roles are supported by dopamine signaling, including phasic dopamine, involved in assessing action-outcome associations, and tonic dopamine, which reflects ongoing dopaminergic tone that biases action initiation. Intrastriatal dopamine release is modulated by cholinergic interneurons via nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Dysregulation of these mechanisms can contribute to the transition from occasional to habitual ethanol drinking. Here, we used in-vitro fast-scan cyclic voltammetry to measure dopamine signaling in male (n=6) and female (n=6) rhesus macaques following six months of ethanol self-administration. In putamen, ethanol increased tonic dopamine in both sexes, with females exhibiting greater release and faster dopamine uptake rates than males. In the caudate, ethanol self-administration enhanced dopamine uptake rates only in males. Phasic dopamine release was enhanced in caudate of both sexes but only putamen in males. nAChR blockade revealed that phasic dopamine release in males, but not females, was dependent on cholinergic modulation. These results demonstrate basal and sex-specific dopamine release and uptake are uniquely altered in rhesus macaque caudate and putamen in conjunction with chronic ethanol drinking.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2025

Ethanol inhibits dorsomedial striatum acetylcholine release

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) has severe adverse health and economic impacts totaling over $240 billion annually. Despite this, FDA approved treatments for AUD are limited. For this reason, further understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms in AUD is required for new treatments. An aspect of AUD involves deficits in behavioral flexibility that is similarly seen in animal models with depletion of dorsal striatal cholinergic interneurons (CINs). We found that acute EtOH (40 mM) inhibits the firing rate of dorsal striatal CINs, which are the primary source of acetylcholine (ACh) in the dorsal striatum. Additionally, we found through slice photometry recordings using an intensity-based ACh sensing fluorescent reporter (iAChSnFR) that acute EtOH (40 mM) inhibits dorsal striatal ACh release. In accord, in vivo fiber photometry with iAChSnFR also showed inhibition of ACh release following acute EtOH (2 g/kg ip). To induce EtOH dependence in mice, we used the chronic intermittent EtOH (CIE) vapor exposure model. Following CIE, we found that CIE-treated mice had a significant depression of ACh release compared to control mice in the dorsomedial but not dorsolateral striatum. Then, we performed stereological cell counts of CINs in CIE and control mice to examine the cause of this ACh deficit and found that CIE mice had a significant decrease in CINs in the dorsomedial but not dorsolateral striatum. In conclusion, our data show that EtOH inhibits dorsal striatal cholinergic signaling in a subregion specific manner that may contribute to AUD related behaviors.

neuroscience↗