Biology subjects

Kohn, T.

Publications and source records attributed to Kohn, T..

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

bioRxiv2026

Freshwater Microbiomes Shape Viral Inactivation in Continuous Cultures

The high stability of enteric viruses in freshwater increases their risk of waterborne transmission. In aquatic environments, bacteria are known to enhance viral removal and inactivation. However, the differences in viral inactivation across freshwater ecosystems and the influence of community diversity on this process remains poorly understood. Here, we used dilution-to-extinction to generate 64 distinct freshwater communities from three lakes and three aquifers. After establishing freshwater communities in chemostat cultures, each community was challenged with two viruses, coxsackievirus B5 and human adenovirus 2. Both viruses were inactivated more rapidly in lake-derived than in groundwater-derived communities, and adenovirus was inactivated faster than coxsackievirus in both freshwater types. Community-level parameters (cell numbers, richness, evenness) were not significant predictors of viral inactivation. In contrast, differential abundance analyses identified bacterial OTUs associated with inactivation: Acidovorax sp. were associated across sources and Brevundimonas sp., Sphingopyxis sp., and Hydrogenophaga sp. showed source-specific associations. Together, these findings provide new insights into the ecological drivers of viral stability and suggest that viral inactivation may depend more strongly on specific microbial taxa and their ecological context than on overall community diversity. Identifying these associations improves our understanding of the factors governing viral persistence in freshwater environments.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2026

Distinct kinetics and mechanisms of microbial inactivation of enteric virus revealed by capsid and genome integrity

Enteric viruses are important contaminants of surface waters and a significant burden on public health. In aquatic ecosystems, the stability of these pathogens is differentially impacted by abiotic and biotic stressors, which can exert inactivating effects. Here, we investigated the fate of two enteroviruses, echovirus 11 (E11) and coxsackievirus B5 (CVB5), and one adenovirus, human adenovirus 2 (HAdV2), in lakewater and explored the mechanisms underlying their microbial inactivation. By combining infectivity assays, genome quantification, and capsid integrity analysis, we characterized virus-specific inactivation kinetics and mechanisms and examined the relationship between infectivity loss and capsid structural integrity. We observed rapid, intermediate, and negligible decay for HAdV2, E11, and CVB5, respectively, and confirmed that microbial proteases contribute to their inactivation. In addition, we revealed that loss of capsid structural integrity drives E11 inactivation, but not HAdV2 inactivation. Genome decay did not consistently correlate with loss of infectivity, highlighting the limitations of genome-based detection for assessing the presence of infectious viruses. These findings provide new insights into the mechanisms governing virus inactivation in aquatic environments and emphasize the importance of understanding viral fate when interpreting molecular detection data to assess virus-associated microbial risks.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2026

Rate of osmotic pressure change in drying saliva microdroplets drives inactivation of surrogate respiratory bacteria

Airborne transmission of respiratory pathogens depends on their ability to remain viable in drying respiratory droplets, yet the physicochemical drivers of bacterial inactivation during droplet evaporation remain poorly quantified. This study combines controlled droplet experiments with physicochemical modeling to investigate how osmotic pressure dynamics influence bacterial survival. Using Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus epidermidis as Gram-negative and Gram-positive surrogates, respectively, we measured viability loss in artificial saliva droplets dried at multiple relative humidities and reconstructed the time-resolved osmotic pressure using the Respiratory Aerosol Model (ResAM). Both organisms remained stable while droplets were liquid but lost viability following efflorescence, when rapid solute concentration changes produced sharp osmotic pressure increases. The extent of inactivation scales log-linearly with the rate of osmotic pressure change around efflorescence: E. coli decays faster than S. epidermidis, and relationships derived in artificial saliva predict survival in independent phosphate-buffered saline experiments. A more rapid drop in humidity led to more severe osmotic shocks and greater inactivation. These results identify the rate of osmotic pressure change during efflorescence as a quantitative, medium-independent predictor of bacterial survival in drying respiratory droplets. ImportanceAirborne infection risk depends on how long microorganisms remain viable in respiratory particles after exhalation, yet the physical mechanisms controlling bacterial survival during droplet drying are not well defined. Evaporation of respiratory droplets concentrates salts and can impose sudden and extreme osmotic stress on microbes, but this process has been difficult to quantify because osmotic pressure cannot be measured directly inside microscopic droplets. Integration of droplet experiments with a physicochemical aerosol model shows that bacterial inactivation is governed primarily by the rate of osmotic pressure increase during droplet efflorescence rather than by static values of humidity or solute concentration alone. This mechanism explains why rapid drying may produce strong inactivation.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2026

An Integrated Cell Culture - Nanopore Sequencing (ICC-NanoporeSeq) method for the simultaneous detection and quantification of multiple infectious enterovirus types

Enteroviruses (EVs) are ubiquitous contaminants of surface waters, where they can remain infectious for long periods of time. Most methods used for EV monitoring are unable to distinguish between infectious and non-infectious particles or between EV types. Because different types exhibit both distinct environmental persistence and health implications, there is a need for type-resolved infectivity measurements. Here we developed Integrated Cell Culture-Nanopore Sequencing (ICC-NanoporeSeq), a method combining short-term cell culture amplification with Nanopore sequencing of the VP1 gene. The ICC approach was adapted from a previously described ICC-RTqPCR protocol, while the NanoporeSeq workflow was derived from a clinical EV typing protocol and optimized for environmentally circulating EV types. Using samples containing known concentrations of ten EV types, the NanoporeSeq method accurately and reproducibly recovered the original proportions of all EV types after correction of biases. When applied to wastewater extracts, the method detected 45 EV types across five species. Furthermore, type-specific calibration curves generated with ICC-NanoporeSeq enabled quantification of the infectious concentrations of six EV types of the Enterovirus B species, allowing a simultaneous and type-resolved assessment of infectivity in mixed samples. Overall, ICC-NanoporeSeq provides a scalable approach for the parallel analysis of multiple EV types. Compared with the predecessor ICC-RTqPCR method, it eliminates the need for multiple type-specific PCR primers and can therefore be readily expanded to include additional EV types.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2026

Differential Effects of Zooplankton on Sunlight Inactivation of Viruses

Interactions between viruses and filter-feeding zooplankton can alter viral persistence in surface waters, with direct implications for water quality and public health risk. However, data on virus-zooplankton interactions and the environmental factors that influence them are still limited. This study evaluated the impact of filter feeding, in the dark and under simulated sunlight, on a bacteriophage (MS2) and a human virus (echovirus11; E11) in the presence of a ciliate (Tetrahymena pyriformis) and rotifer (Brachionus calyciflorus). Dark experiments established organism-dependent baseline removal for each virus, and rotifers showed greater removal of both viruses in comparison to ciliates. Under simulated sunlight, in contrast, experiments with ciliates resulted in greater virus removal compared to experiments with rotifers over a similar timespan (4.2 vs. 2.7 log MS2 in 53-58 h; 3.5 vs. 3.0 log E11 in 24-25 h). Analysis of decay rate constants reveals species-specific shifts in virus removal between dark and light that, depending on viral type and zooplankton species, either accelerate viral attenuation or protect viruses and prolong infectivity. T. pyriformis increases removal under sunlight relative to dark conditions and acts synergistically with sunlight inactivation, whereas rotifers impede sunlight inactivation.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2026

A Capsid Tyrosine Residue Governs the Proteolytic Inactivation of Echovirus 11 in Lakewater

Enteroviruses are environmentally transmissible human pathogens whose stability in natural waters varies widely, yet the molecular determinants underlying this variability remain largely unknown. Echovirus 11 (E11), a re-emerging cause of severe neonatal infections, is efficiently transmitted via contaminated water, making its environmental stability a critical factor in infection risk. Here we identify a single viral capsid residue that governs E11 susceptibility to inactivation by extracellular microbial proteases in freshwater. By combining virus decay measurements in lakewater with proteolytic-cleavage profiling, viral capsid structural analyses, and reverse genetics, we show that the presence of VP2.Y97 renders E11 highly sensitive to microbially-mediated proteolytic decay. Strikingly, this residue is absent from multiple enteroviruses with greater environmental stability, indicating that substitution at a single capsid position is sufficient to shift virus fate in natural waters. These findings reveal that fine-scale capsid architecture controls virus-microbe interactions in aquatic environments and establish a molecular mechanism linking capsid variation to environmental transmission potential among enteroviruses.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2025

Sub-Nanomolar Detection and Discrimination of Microcystin Congeners Using Aerolysin Nanopores

Climate-driven disruptions in aquatic ecosystems are amplifying cyanotoxin production, threatening drinking and recreational water safety. Monitoring of these toxins is challenged by requirements of the low {micro}g/L detections limits and structural diversity. Here, we employ aerolysin nanopores to distinguish seven of the most prevalent microcystin congeners, both individually and in mixtures, at environmentally relevant concentrations. Importantly, we showed that aerolysin enables the detection of microcystins in different lake water samples at concentrations below the World Health Organizations intervention thresholds, reaching picomolar sensitivity. Moreover, combining experiments and molecular dynamics simulations, we further investigated the microcystin sensing mechanism, suggesting that the ionic current blockage is primarily governed by K238 in aerolysin, while dwell time is regulated by R220 constriction site. Our results open the way to use the nanopore sensing technology for real-time monitoring of microcystins in drinking water sources and surface waters.

bioengineering↗

bioRxiv2025

Proteolytic Activity and Substrate Specificity of Lake Geneva

Heterotrophic microorganisms in lakewater secrete proteases which contribute to the turnover of dissolved organic matter and the degradation of peptidic contaminants. However, little is known about the identities and substrate specificities of these proteases. Herein, we sought to characterize the global proteolytic fingerprint of the extracellular proteases present in Lake Geneva, the largest freshwater body in Central Europe. Using Multiplex Substrate Profiling by Mass Spectrometry (MSP-MS), we identified preferred enzymatic cleavage next to positively charged and certain non-polar amino acids, while cleavage next to negatively charged residues was disfavored. Specifically, many of the detected cleavage sites were predominantly surrounded by arginine and lysine, consistent with a trypsin-like substrate specificity. This pattern was conserved across seasons and water depths and were shared with two other Swiss lakes. In contrast, we observed variability in the number and types of cleavage sites across samples, suggesting spatial and temporal differences in overall protease diversity. Using class-specific inhibitors, we found that serine and metalloproteases contribute to both exo- and endo-proteolytic activity in lakewater. Our findings expand our understanding of protein stability in lake ecosystems and may be used to predict the fate of peptidic contaminants in the environment.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2025

Lognormal distributions capture site-specific variability in enteric virus concentrations in wastewater

As more data on virus concentrations in influent water from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) becomes available, establishing best practices for virus measurements, monitoring, and statistical modelling can improve the understanding of virus concentration distributions in wastewater. To support this, we assessed the temporal variability of norovirus, adenovirus, enterovirus, and rotavirus concentrations in influent water across multiple WWTPs in Switzerland, the USA, and Japan. Our findings demonstrate that the lognormal distribution accurately predicts temporal variations in concentrations for all viruses at all sites, outperforming the gamma and Weibull distributions that do not capture high variability. However, important differences in variability and uncertainty were observed across systems, underscoring the need for site-specific assessments. Using lognormal parameters, we identified optimal monitoring frequencies to balance cost-effectiveness and precision. For most sites, weekly monitoring would be sufficient to estimate the annual average concentration of enteric viruses within a 95% confidence interval of 0.5-log10. We examined the mechanistic basis of the lognormal distribution, highlighting processes that drive its prevalence and shape the behavior of its upper tail. By integrating these insights, this study provides a novel statistical foundation for optimizing virus monitoring frameworks and informing public health interventions targeting wastewater systems.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2024

Comparative Characterization of Bronchial and Nasal Mucus Reveals Key Determinants of Influenza A Virus Inhibition

Differentiated primary human respiratory epithelial cells grown at air-liquid interface have become a widely used cell culture model of the human conducting airways. These cultures contain secretory cells such as goblet and club cells, which produce and secrete mucus. Here, we characterize the composition of mucus harvested from airway cultures of nasal and bronchial origin. We find that despite inter-donor variability, the salt, sugar, lipid, and protein content and composition are very similar between nasal and bronchial mucus. However, subtle differences in the abundance of individual components in nasal versus bronchial mucus can influence its antimicrobial properties: The ability of mucus to neutralize influenza A virus varies with the anatomical origin of the airway cultures and correlates with the abundance of triglycerides and sialylated glycoproteins and glycolipids. ImportanceRespiratory mucus plays an important role during the transmission and infection process of microbes in the human respiratory tract. In case of influenza A virus, mucus stabilizes virions in infectious respiratory particles and droplets but hampers virus particles before they reach the respiratory epithelium through its physicochemical properties and the presence of sialylated decoy receptors. However, it is thus far not well understood which components of mucus mediate protection and inhibition. Our study now provides a comprehensive analysis of bronchial and nasal mucus from primary human airway cultures that can be used as a resource for future experimental designs and interpretations.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2024

Dependence of aerosol-borne influenza A virus infectivity on relative humidity and aerosol composition

We describe a novel biosafety aerosol chamber equipped with state-of-the-art instrumentation for bubble-bursting aerosol generation, size distribution measurement, and condensation-growth collection to minimize sampling artifacts when measuring virus infectivity in aerosol particles. Using this facility, we investigated the effect of relative humidity (RH) in very clean air without trace gases (except [~]400 ppm CO2) on the preservation of influenza A virus (IAV) infectivity in saline aerosol particles. We characterized infectivity in terms of 99%-inactivation time, t99, a metric we consider most relevant to airborne virus transmission. The viruses remained infectious for a long time, namely t99 > 5 h, if RH < 30% and the particles effloresced. Under intermediate conditions of humidity (40% < RH < 70%), the loss of infectivity was the most rapid (t99 {approx} 15-20 min, and up to t99 {approx} 35 min at 95% RH). This is more than an order of magnitude faster than suggested by many previous studies of aerosol-borne IAV, possibly due to the use of matrices containing organic molecules, such as proteins, with protective effects for the virus. We tested this hypothesis by adding sucrose to our aerosolization medium and, indeed, observed protection of IAV at intermediate RH (55 %). Interestingly, the t99 of our measurements are also systematically lower than those in 1-L droplet measurements of organic-free saline solutions, which cannot be explained by particle size effects alone.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2024

Impact of Organic Compounds on the Stability of Influenza A Virus in deposited 1-ul droplets

The composition of respiratory fluids influences the stability of viruses in exhaled aerosol particles and droplets, though the role of respiratory organics in modulating virus stability remains poorly understood. This study investigates the effect of organic compounds on the stability of influenza A virus (IAV) in deposited droplets. We compare the infectivity loss of IAV at different relative humidities (RH) over the course of one hour in 1-l droplets consisting of phosphate-buffered saline (without organics), synthetic lung fluid, or nasal mucus (both containing organics). We show that IAV stability increases with increasing organic:salt ratios. Among the various organic species, proteins are identified as the most protective component, with smaller proteins stabilizing IAV more efficiently at the same mass concentration. Organics act by both increasing the efflorescence RH and shortening the drying period until efflorescence at a given RH. This research advances our mechanistic understanding of how organics stabilize exhaled viruses and thus influence their inactivation in respiratory droplets.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2024

Stability of influenza A virus in droplets and aerosols is heightened by the presence of commensal respiratory bacteria.

Aerosol transmission remains a major challenge for the control of respiratory viruses, particularly for those that cause recurrent epidemics, like influenza A virus (IAV). These viruses are rarely expelled alone, but instead are embedded in a consortium of microorganisms that populate the respiratory tract. The impact of microbial communities and inter-pathogen interactions upon the stability of transmitted viruses is well-characterised for pathogens of the gut, but is particularly under-studied in the respiratory niche. Here, we assessed whether the presence of 5 different species of common commensal respiratory bacteria could influence the stability of IAV within droplets deposited on surfaces and within airborne aerosol particles at typical indoor air humidity. It was found that bacterial presence within stationary droplets, either a mixed community or individual strains, resulted in 10- to 100-fold more infectious IAV remaining after 1 hour. Bacterial viability was not required for this viral stabilisation, though maintained bacterial morphology seemed to be essential. Additionally, non-respiratory bacteria tested here had little stabilising effect, indicating this phenomenon was respiratory-specific. The protective bacteria stabilised IAV in droplets via induction of early efflorescence due to flattened droplet morphology during drying. Even when no efflorescence occurred at high humidity or the bacteria-induced changes in droplet morphology were abolished by aerosolization instead of deposition on a well-plate, the bacteria remained protective. This indicates an additional stabilisation mechanism that is currently unknown. Notably, respiratory bacteria at equivalent density offered varying degrees of protection in droplets, with the Gram-positive species Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae being the most robustly stabilising. This suggests that the composition of an individuals respiratory microbiota could be a previously un-considered host-specific factor influencing the efficacy of expelled viral spread. Identifying novel host-specific factors such as the commensal microbiota that can influence viral stability in the environment will further increase our understanding of individual transmission risks, and will provide novel opportunities to limit the spread of respiratory infections within our populations. SynopsisOur findings have significant environmental and health relevance, as they identify the host respiratory microbiota as a novel factor potentially contributing to environmental viral stability within indoor environments.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2023

Salt-mediated inactivation of influenza A virus in 1-ul droplets exhibits exponential dependence on NaCl molality

Influenza A virus (IAV) spreads through exhaled aerosol particles and larger droplets. Estimating the stability of IAV is challenging and depends on factors such as the respiratory matrix and drying kinetics. Here, we combine kinetic experiments on millimeter-sized saline droplets with a biophysical aerosol model to quantify the impact of NaCl on IAV stability. We show that IAV inactivation is determined by NaCl concentration, which increases during water evaporation and then decreases again when efflorescence occurs. When drying in air with relative humidity RH = 30%, inactivation follows an inverted sigmoidal curve, with inactivation occurring most rapidly when the NaCl concentration exceeds 20 molal immediately prior to efflorescence. Efflorescence reduces the NaCl molality to saturated conditions, resulting in a significantly reduced inactivation rate. We demonstrate that the inactivation rate k depends exponentially on NaCl molality, and after the solution reaches equilibrium, the inactivation proceeds at a first-order rate. Introducing sucrose, an organic co-solute, attenuates IAV inactivation via two mechanisms, firstly by decreasing the NaCl molality during the drying phase, and secondly by a protective effect against the NaCl-induced inactivation. For both pure saline and sucrose-containing droplets, our biophysical model ResAM accurately simulates the inactivation when NaCl molality is used as the only inactivating factor. This study highlights the role of NaCl molality in IAV inactivation and provides a mechanistic basis for the observed inactivation rates. SYNOPSIS: This work quantifies the dependence of influenza A virus stability on salt molality in drying droplets and furthers the understanding of airborne virus transmission.SYNOPSIS: This work quantifies the dependence of influenza A virus stability on salt molality in drying droplets and furthers the understanding of airborne virus transmission.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2023

Influence of amino acid substitutions in capsid proteins of coxsackievirus B5 on free chlorine and thermal inactivation

The sensitivity of enteroviruses to disinfectants varies among genetically similar variants and coincides with amino acid changes in capsid proteins, though the effect of individual substitutions remains unknown. Here, we employed reverse genetics to investigate how amino acid substitutions in coxsackievirus B5 (CVB5) capsid proteins affect its sensitivity to free chlorine and heat treatment. Of ten amino acid changes hypothesized to coincide with free chlorine resistance, none significantly reduced the chlorine-sensitivity, indicating a minor role of the capsid composition in chlorine sensitivity of CVB5. Conversely, we observed reduced heat sensitivity in mutants with substitutions at the C-terminal region of the viral protein 1. Cryo-electron microscopy revealed that these changes affect the assembly of intermediate viral states (particle A and E), suggesting that the mechanism for reduced heat sensitivity could be related to improved molecular packing of CVB5, resulting in greater stability and/or altered dynamics of virus uncoating during infection.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2023

The early communication stages between serine proteases and enterovirus capsids in the race for viral disintegration

Enteroviruses are human pathogens known to challenge water safety1,2. Among the microbial stressors found in water, bacterial serine proteases contribute to the control of enterovirus persistence3. However, the structural interactions accounting for the susceptibility of enteroviruses to proteases remains unexplained. Here, we describe the molecular mechanisms involved in the recruitment of serine proteases to viral capsids. Among the virus types used, coxsackievirus A9 (CVA9), but not CVB5 and echovirus 11 (E11), was inactivated by Subtilisin A in a host-independent manner, while Bovine Pancreatic Trypsin (BPT) only reduced CVA9 infectivity in a host-dependent manner. Predictive interaction models of each protease with capsid protomers indicate the main targets as internal disordered protein (IDP) segments exposed either on the 5-fold vertex (DE loop VP1) or at the 5/2-fold intersection (C-terminal end VP1) of viral capsids. We further show that a functional binding protease/capsid depends on both the strength and the evolution over time of protease-VP1 complexes, and lastly on the local adaptation of proteases on surrounding viral regions. Finally, we identified three residues on CVA9 capsid that trigger cleavage by Subtilisin A, one of which acts as a sensor residue contributing to enzyme recognition on the DE loop. Overall, this study describes an important biological mechanism involved in enteroviruses biocontrol.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2023

Uptake without inactivation of human adenovirus type 2 by Tetrahymena pyriformis ciliates

Human adenoviruses are ubiquitous contaminants of surface water. Indigenous protists may interact with adenoviruses and contribute to their removal from the water column, though the associated kinetics and mechanisms differ between protist species. In this work, we investigated the interaction of human adenovirus type 2 (HAdV2) with the ciliate Tetrahymena pyriformis. In co-incubation experiments in a freshwater matrix, T. pyriformis was found to efficiently remove HAdV2, with [≥] 4 log10 removal over 72 hours. Neither sorption onto the ciliate nor secreted compounds contributed to the observed loss of infectious HAdV2. Instead, internalization was shown to be the dominant removal mechanism, resulting in the presence of viral particles inside food vacuoles of T. pyriformis, as visualized by transmission electron microscopy. The fate of HAdV2 once ingested was scrutinized and no evidence of virus digestion was found over the course of 48 hours. This work shows that T. pyriformis can exert a dual role on microbial water quality: while they remove infectious adenovirus from the water column, they can also accumulate and potentially protect infectious viruses from exposure to environmental or engineered stressors. Environmental significanceHuman viruses are ubiquitous contaminants of surface water. The fate of human viruses, once discharged into the environment, is modulated by indigenous microorganisms in the surrounding water body. Among microorganisms, the role of protists in controlling virus persistence has been overlooked. Here, we investigate the interactions of the ciliate Tetrahymena pyriformis with human adenovirus type 2. We demonstrate that T. pyriformis can serve as a sink of adenovirus from the water column, but also act as a reservoir and potential protective barrier for infectious viruses against stressors. T. pyriformis ciliates are among the most abundant protists in surface waters. Understanding this dual role of protists is important for assessing and maintaining microbial water quality and infection risks.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2022

Inactivation of Influenza A virus by pH conditions encountered in expiratory aerosol particles results from localized conformational changes within Haemagglutinin and Matrix 1 proteins.

Multiple respiratory viruses including Influenza A virus (IAV) can be transmitted via expiratory aerosol particles, and aerosol pH was recently identified as a major factor influencing airborne virus infectivity. For indoor air, small exhaled aerosols undergo rapid acidification to pH [~]4. IAV is known to be sensitive to mildly acidic conditions encountered within host endosomes, however, it is unknown whether the same mechanisms could mediate viral inactivation within the more acidic aerosol micro-environment. Here, we identified that transient exposure to pH 4 caused IAV inactivation by a two-stage process, with an initial sharp decline in infectious titers that was mainly attributed to premature attainment of the post-fusion conformation of viral protein haemagglutinin (HA). Changes to HA were observed by hydrogen-deuterium exchange coupled to mass spectrometry (HDX-MS) as early as 10 seconds post-exposure to acidic conditions. In addition, virion integrity was partially but irreversibly affected by acidic conditions. This was attributed to a progressive unfolding of the internal matrix protein 1 (M1), and aligned with a more gradual decline in viral infectivity with time. In contrast, no acid-mediated changes to the genome or lipid envelope were detected. Our HDX-MS data are in agreement with other more labor-intensive structural analysis techniques such as X-ray crystallography, highlighting the usefulness of whole-virus HDX-MS for multiplexed protein analyses, even within enveloped viruses such as IAV. Improved understanding of respiratory virus fate within exhaled aerosols constitutes a global public health priority, and information gained here could aid development of novel strategies to control the airborne persistence of seasonal and/or pandemic influenza in the future.

microbiology↗