Genetics of Cocaine and Methamphetamine Consumption and Preference in Drosophila melanogaster
Illicit use of psychostimulants, such as cocaine and methamphetamine, constitutes a significant public health problem. Whereas neural mechanisms that mediate the effects of these drugs are well-characterized, genetic factors that account for individual variation in susceptibility to substance abuse and addiction remain largely unknown. Drosophila melanogaster can serve as a translational model for studies on substance abuse, since flies have a dopamine transporter that can bind cocaine and methamphetamine, and exposure to these compounds elicits effects similar to those observed in people, suggesting conserved evolutionary mechanisms underlying drug responses. Here, we used the D. melanogaster Genetic Reference Panel to investigate the genetic basis for variation in psychostimulant drug consumption, to determine whether similar or distinct genetic networks underlie variation in consumption of cocaine and methamphetamine, and to assess the extent of sexual dimorphism and effect of genetic context on variation in voluntary drug consumption. Quantification of natural genetic variation in voluntary consumption, preference, and change in consumption and preference over time for cocaine and methamphetamine uncovered significant genetic variation for all traits, including sex-, exposure-and drug-specific genetic variation. Genome wide association analyses identified both shared and drug-specific candidate genes, which could be integrated in genetic interaction networks. We assessed the effects of ubiquitous RNA interference (RNAi) on consumption behaviors for 34 candidate genes: all affected at least one behavior. Finally, we utilized RNAi knockdown in the nervous system to implicate dopaminergic neurons and the mushroom bodies as part of the neural circuitry underlying experience-dependent development of drug preference.\n\nAUTHOR SUMMARYIllicit use of cocaine and methamphetamine is a major public health problem. Whereas the neurological effects of these drugs are well characterized, it remains challenging to determine genetic risk factors for substance abuse in human populations. The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, presents an excellent model for identifying evolutionarily conserved genes that affect drug consumption, since genetic background and exposure can be controlled precisely. We took advantage of natural variation in a panel of inbred wild derived fly lines with complete genome sequences to assess the extent of genetic variation among these lines for voluntary consumption of cocaine and methamphetamine and to explore whether some genetic backgrounds might show experience-dependent development of drug preference. The drug consumption traits were highly variable among the lines with strong sex-, drug- and exposure time-specific components. We identified candidate genes and gene networks associated with variation in consumption of cocaine and methamphetamine and development of drug preference. Using tissue-specific suppression of gene expression, we were able to functionally implicate candidate genes that affected at least one consumption trait in at least one drug and sex. In humans, the mesolimbic dopaminergic projection plays a role in drug addiction. We asked whether in Drosophila the mushroom bodies could play an analogous role, as they are integrative brain centers associated with experience-dependent learning. Indeed, our results suggest that variation in consumption and development of preference for both cocaine and methamphetamine is mediated, at least in part, through a neural network that comprises dopaminergic projections to the mushroom bodies.