Strong replicators associated with open chromatin are sufficient to establish an early replicating domain
Vertebrate genomes replicate according to a precise temporal program strongly correlated with their organization into topologically associating domains. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the establishment of early-replicating domains remain largely unknown. We defined two minimal cis-element modules containing a strong replication origin and chromatin modifier binding sites capable of shifting a targeted mid-late replicating region for earlier replication. When inserted side-by-side, these modules acted in cooperation, with similar effects on two late-replicating regions. Targeted insertions of these two modules at two chromosomal sites separated by 30 kb brought these two modules into close physical proximity and induced the formation of an early-replicating domain. Thus, combinations of strong origins and cis-elements capable of opening the chromatin structure are the basic units of early-replicating domains, and are absent from late-replicated regions. These findings are consistent with those of genome-wide studies mapping strong initiation sites and open chromatin marks in vertebrate genomes.