Biology subjects

Gomez, G.

Publications and source records attributed to Gomez, G..

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

bioRxiv2025

Coordinated overexpression of miR398 and miR408 confers broad-spectrum abiotic stress tolerance in melon.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) in general and miR398 and miR408 in particular, have emerged as key regulators of plant adaptation to individual stress, yet their roles regulating the crop response to diverse unfavorable environments remain poorly explored. Here, we present the first melon (Cucumis melo) plants overexpressing miR398 and miR408 precursors, two conserved miRNAs involved in the regulation of cooper (Cu) homeostasis and associated with stress-response. Engineered plants exhibited enhanced vegetative development, including stem elongation, internode formation, root architecture, and leaf production. The significant increased accumulation of well-processed miR398 and miR408, along with the downregulation of their respective targets (Copper/Zinc Superoxide Dismutase and Basic Blue Protein) demonstrating the functional activity of the transgenes. Sequencing analysis revealed positive correlation in accumulation of miR398 and miR408, suggesting a previously undescribed form of coordinated miRNA regulation, potentially independent of conventional transcription factor activity. Transgenic plants showed improved tolerance to drought, salinity, heat, and cold stress, validating the role of miR398 and miR408 as master regulators of abiotic stress resilience in melon. This work highlights the potential of biotechnological strategies based on engineering Cu-related miRNAs to enhance crop performance under different adverse environments, thereby contributing to agricultural sustainability in the face of climate change.

plant biology↗

bioRxiv2025

Prenatal Acetaminophen Exposure Does Not Disrupt Human Fetal Brain Development in Cortical Organoid Models

Acetaminophen (APAP) is the most widely used analgesic during pregnancy, yet its effects on prenatal human brain development remain incompletely understood. Epidemiological studies have reported inconsistent associations between prenatal APAP exposure and later neurodevelopmental outcomes, underscoring the need for mechanistic evaluation in human-relevant developmental models. Here, we examined how APAP influences early cortical development using induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cortical organoids (COs) generated from six independent lines. Organoids were exposed to physiologically relevant APAP concentrations (25, 50, and 100 M) for 5 days beginning at day 21 of differentiation, corresponding to late first-trimester cortical development. We assessed organoid growth, apoptosis, differentiation, synaptic maturation, transcriptomic profiles using bulk and single-nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq), and functional network activity using multielectrode array recordings up to 4 months. APAP exposure did not affect organoid size, cytoarchitecture, or viability. Neuronal and progenitor cell proportions, as well as synaptic puncta density were unchanged. Bulk RNA-seq revealed subtle transcriptional changes only at the highest dose (16 differentially expressed genes at 100 M), enriched for neurodevelopmental pathways. In contrast, snRNA-seq at 3 months revealed no changes in cell type composition or gene expression. Consistent with these findings, electrophysiological measures including firing rate, burst frequency, and network synchrony, were indistinguishable from controls. Together, these results indicate that exposure to therapeutic APAP concentrations during a critical window of early cortical development produces minimal molecular perturbations without detectable consequences. This study provides mechanistic evidence indicating that, in this human organoid model, recommended APAP exposure is not associated with detectable disruptions in pathways implicated in brain development.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2024

Chronic infection of Caenorhabditis elegans by Orsay virus induces age-dependent immunity and superinfection exclusion

Orsay virus (OrV) is a natural pathogen of C. elegans, which mounts an antiviral response upon infection and enables the investigation of the mechanisms governing infection and immunity. Here, we focus on two of these features, namely the effect of life-long infections and superinfection dynamics. By following the course of an infection throughout the lifespan of a synchronous wild-type population, we describe several viral load peaks followed by sharp decreases in viral load, suggesting that the infection is chronic and that animals manage to suppress viral replication successfully throughout most of their lives. Moreover, we show that animals that have been previously exposed to the virus are able to control viral replication upon a subsequent inoculation, indicative of superinfection exclusion. Primary infections produced transcriptomic and small RNA alterations, whose extent was highly dependent on the developmental stage of the worm at the time of infection and the time until sampling. Superinfection, in turn, had little impact on the overall transcriptome, but showed a misregulation of piRNAs, rRNAs, and tsRNAs. Superinfection exclusion was robust throughout larval development and adulthood, providing protection against various OrV isolates. However, the protective effect of the initial infection diminished over time, suggesting different mechanisms of action and ultimately favoring the primary infecting virus. This phenomenon was dependent on a functional RNA interference pathway.

genomics↗

bioRxiv2024

From birds to mammals: spillover of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus to dairy cattle led to efficient intra- and interspecies transmission

Infections with the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b virus have resulted in the death of millions of domestic birds and thousands of wild birds in the U.S. since January, 20221-4 Throughout this outbreak, spillovers of the virus to mammals have been frequently documented5-12. Here, we report the detection of HPAI H5N1 virus in dairy cattle herds across several states in the U.S. The affected cows displayed clinical signs encompassing decreased feed intake, altered fecal consistency, respiratory distress, and decreased milk production with abnormal milk. Infectious virus and RNA were consistently detected in milk collected from affected cows. Viral staining in tissues revealed a distinct tropism of the virus for the epithelial cells lining the alveoli of the mammary gland in cows. Analysis of whole genome sequences obtained from dairy cows, birds, domestic cats, and a racoon from affected farms indicated multidirectional interspecies transmissions. Epidemiologic and genomic data revealed efficient cow-to-cow transmission after healthy cows from an affected farm were transported to a premise in a different state. These results demonstrate the transmission of HPAI H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b virus at a non-traditional interface and to a new and highly relevant livestock species, underscoring the ability of the virus to cross species barriers.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2024

Identification, characterization and transcriptional analysis of long non-coding RNAs in Cucurbits

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) constitute a fascinating class of regulatory RNAs, widely distributed in eukaryotes. In plants, they exhibit features such as tissue-specific expression, spatiotemporal regulation, and responsiveness to stress, suggesting their involvement in specific biological processes. Although an increasing number of studies support the regulatory role of lncRNAs in model plants, our knowledge about these transcripts in relevant crops is limited. In this study we employ a custom pipeline on a dataset of over 1,000 RNA-seq studies across nine representative species of the family Cucurbitaceae to predict 91,209 non-redundant lncRNAs. LncRNAs were predicted according to three confidence levels and classified into intergenic, natural antisense, intronic, and sense overlapping. Predicted lncRNAs have lower expression levels compared to protein-coding genes but a more specific behavior when considering plant tissues, developmental stages, and response to stress, emphasizing their potential roles in regulating various aspects of plant-biology. The evolutionary analysis indicates higher positional conservation than sequence conservation, which may be linked to the presence of conserved modular motifs within syntenic lncRNAs. In short, this research provides a comprehensive map of lncRNAs in the agriculturally relevant Cucurbitaceae family, offering a valuable resource for future investigations in crop improvement.

bioinformatics↗

bioRxiv2023

Hop stunt viroid infection alters host heterochromatin

Viroids are pathogenic non-coding RNAs that completely rely on their host molecular machinery to accomplish their life cycle. Several interactions between viroids and their host molecular machinery have been identified, including an interference with epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation. Despite this, whether viroids influence changes in other epigenetic marks such as histone modifications remained unknown. Epigenetic regulation is particularly important during pathogenesis processes because it might be a key regulator of the dynamism of the defense response. Here we have analyzed the changes taking place in Cucumis sativus facultative and constitutive heterochromatin during hop stunt viroid (HSVd) infection using chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) of the two main heterochromatic marks: H3K9me2 and H3K27me3. We find that HSVd infection is associated with changes in both H3K27me3 and H3K9me2, with a tendency to decrease the levels of repressive epigenetic marks through infection progression. These epigenetic changes are connected to the transcriptional regulation of their expected targets, genes and transposable elements. Indeed, several genes related to the defense response are targets of both epigenetic marks. Our results highlight another host regulatory mechanism affected by viroid infection, providing further information about the complexity of the multiple layers of interactions between pathogens/viroids and hosts/plants.

plant biology↗

bioRxiv2022

Antigen and IL-33 synergistically promote chromatin accessibility at the regulatory regions of pro-inflammatory genes of human skin mast cells

BackgroundAntigenic stimulation through cross-linking the IgE receptor and epithelial cell-derived cytokine IL-33 are potent stimuli of mast cell (MC) activation. Moreover, IL-33 primes a variety of cell types, including MCs to respond more vigorously to external stimuli. However, target genes induced by the combined IL-33 priming and antigenic stimulation have not been investigated in human skin mast cells (HSMCs) in a genome-wide manner. Furthermore, epigenetic changes induced by the combined IL-33 priming and antigenic stimulation have not been evaluated. ResultsWe found that IL-33 priming of HSMCs enhanced their capacity to promote transcriptional synergy of the IL1B and CXCL8 genes by 16- and 3-fold, respectively, in response to combined IL-33 and antigen stimulation compared to without IL-33 priming. We identified the target genes in IL-33-primed HSMCs in response to the combined IL-33 and antigenic stimulation using RNA sequencing (RNA-seq). We found that the majority of genes synergistically upregulated in the IL-33-primed HSMCs in response to the combined IL-33 and antigenic stimulation were predominantly proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine genes. Moreover, the combined IL-33 priming and antigenic stimulation increase chromatin accessibility in the synergy target genes but not synergistically. Transcription factor binding motif analysis revealed more binding sites for NF-{kappa}B, AP-1, GABPA, and RAP1 in the induced or increased chromatin accessible regions of the synergy target genes. ConclusionsOur study demonstrates that IL-33 priming greatly potentiates MCs ability to transcribe proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine genes in response to antigenic stimulation, shining light on how epithelial cell-derived cytokine IL-33 can cause exacerbation of skin MC-mediated allergic inflammation.

immunology↗

bioRxiv2022

Minimal RNA replicons for targeted gene silencing based on an asymptomatic viroid

Gene silencing for functional studies in plants has been largely facilitated by manipulating viral genomes with inserts from host genes to trigger virus induced gene silencing (VIGS) against the corresponding mRNAs. However, viral genomes encode multiple proteins and disrupt plant homeostasis by interfering with endogenous cell mechanisms. To circumvent this issue, we have developed a silencing method based on the minimal autonomously-infectious nucleic acids currently known: viroids. In particular, Eggplant latent viroid (ELVd), an asymptomatic viroid, was manipulated with insertions between 21 to 42 nucleotides and our results show that larger insertions are tolerated but secondary structure is critical for their stability. Additionally, these ELVd constructs are able of local and systemic spread and can silence a target gene in eggplant. Inspired by the design of artificial microRNAs, we have developed a standardized procedure to generate stable insertions into the ELVd genome capable of silencing the desired target gene. Analogously to VIGS, we have termed our approach Viroid Induced Gene Silencing (VdIGS) and demonstrate that is a promising tool for dissecting gene functions in eggplant. Overall, this represents the use of minimal circular replicating RNAs able to spread systemically combined with the production of a tailored sRNA for targeted silencing.

plant biology↗

bioRxiv2022

Integrative time-scale and multi-omic analysis of host-responses to Hop stunt viroid infection

Viroids are circular RNAs of minimal complexity compelled to subvert plant-regulatory networks to accomplish their infectious process. Studies focused on the response to viroid infection have mostly addressed specific regulatory levels and considered a unique infection time. Thus, much remains to be done to understand the temporal evolution and complex nature of viroid-host interactions. Here we present an integrative analysis of the temporal evolution and intensity of the genome-wide alterations in cucumber plants infected with hop stunt viroid (HSVd) by integrating differential host transcriptome, sRNAnome and methylome. Our results support that HSVd promotes the redesign of the cucumber regulatory-pathways predominantly affecting specific regulatory layers at different infection-phases. The initial response was characterized by a reconfiguration of the host-transcriptome by differential exon usage, followed by a progressive transcriptional down-regulation modulated by epigenetic changes. Regarding endogenous small RNAs, the alterations were limited and mainly occur at the late stage. The most significant host-alterations were predominantly related to the down-regulation of transcripts involved in plant-defence mechanisms, the restriction of pathogen-movement and the systemic spreading of defence signals. Altogether our data evidence the existence of a dynamic and yet poorly known arms race between the host and the viroid. We expect that these data constituting the first comprehensive map of the plant responses to a viroid infection contribute to elucidate the molecular basis of this multifaceted defence and counter-defence layout.

plant biology↗

bioRxiv2021

Diverse pathogens activate the host RIDD pathway to subvert BLOS1-directed immune defense

The phagocytosis and destruction of pathogens in lysosomes constitute central elements of innate immune defense. Here, we show that Brucella, the causative agent of brucellosis, the most prevalent bacterial zoonosis globally, subverts this immune defense pathway by activating regulated IRE1-dependent decay (RIDD) of mRNAs encoding BLOS1, a protein that promotes endosome-lysosome fusion. RIDD-deficient cells and mice harboring a RIDD-incompetent variant of IRE1 were resistant to infection. Non-functional Blos1 struggled to assemble the BLOC-1-related complex (BORC), resulting in differential recruitment of BORC-related lysosome trafficking components, perinuclear trafficking of Brucella-containing vacuoles (BCVs), and enhanced susceptibility to infection. The RIDD-resistant Blos1 variant maintains the integrity of BORC and a higher-level association of BORC-related components that promote centrifugal lysosome trafficking, resulting in enhanced BCV peripheral trafficking and lysosomal-destruction, and resistance to infection. These findings demonstrate that host RIDD activity on BLOS1 regulates Brucella intracellular parasitism by disrupting BORC-directed lysosomal trafficking. Notably, coronavirus MHV also subverted the RIDD-BLOS1 axis to promote intracellular replication. Our work therefore establishes BLOS1 as a novel immune defense factor whose activity is hijacked by diverse pathogens.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2021

Exploring the miRNA-mediated response to combined stresses in melon plants

Climate change has been associated with a higher incidence of combined adverse environmental conditions that can promote a significant decrease in crop productivity. However, knowledge on how a combination of stresses might affect plant development is still scarce. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have been proposed as potential targets for improving crop-productivity. Here, we have combined deep-sequencing, computational characterization of responsive miRNAs and validation of their regulatory role in a comprehensive analysis of melons response to several combinations of four stresses (cold, salinity, short day, and infection with a fungus). Twenty-two miRNA families responding to double and/or triple stresses were identified. The regulatory role of the differentially expressed miRNAs was validated by quantitative measurements of the expression of the corresponding target genes. A high proportion (ca. 60%) of these families (mainly highly conserved miRNAs targeting transcription factors) showed a non-additive response to multiple stresses in comparison with that observed under each one of the stresses individually. Among those miRNAs showing non-additive response to stress-combinations, most interactions were negative suggesting the existence of functional convergence in the miRNA-mediated response to combined stresses. Taken together, our results provide compelling evidences that the response to combined stresses cannot be easily predicted from the study individual stresses.

plant biology↗

bioRxiv2021

Enhanced RhoA signaling stabilizes E-cadherin in migrating epithelial monolayers.

Epithelia migrate as physically coherent populations of cells. Earlier studies revealed that mechanical stress accumulates in these cellular layers as they move. These stresses are characteristically tensile in nature and have often been inferred to arise when moving cells pull upon the cell-cell adhesions that hold them together. We now report that epithelial tension at adherens junctions between migrating cells also reflects an increase in RhoA-mediated junctional contractility. We find that active RhoA levels were stimulated by p114 RhoGEF at the junctions between migrating MCF-7 monolayers, and this is accompanied by increased levels of actomyosin and mechanical tension. By applying a strategy to restore active RhoA specifically at adherens junctions by manipulating its scaffold, anillin, we found that this junctional RhoA signal was necessary to stabilize junctional E-cadherin during epithelial migration. We suggest that stabilization of E-cadherin by RhoA serves to increase cell-cell adhesion against the mechanical stresses of migration.

cell biology↗

bioRxiv2020

A unified view of neighbour cell engagement during apoptotic cell extrusion.

Epithelia must eliminate apoptotic cells to preserve tissue barriers and prevent inflammation [1]. Several different mechanisms exist for apoptotic clearance, including efferocytosis [2, 3] and apical extrusion [4, 5]. We found that extrusion was the first-line response to apoptosis in cultured monolayers and in zebrafish epidermis. During extrusion, the apoptotic cell elicited active lamellipodial protrusions and assembly of a contractile extrusion ring in its neighbours. Depleting E-cadherin compromised both the contractile ring and extrusion, implying that a cadherin-dependent pathway allows apoptotic cells to engage their neighbours for extrusion. We identify RhoA as the cadherin-dependent signal in the neighbour cells and show that it is activated in response to contractile tension from the apoptotic cell. This mechanical stimulus is conveyed by a Myosin VI-dependent mechanotransduction pathway that is necessary both for extrusion and to preserve the epithelial barrier when apoptosis was stimulated. Earlier studies suggested that release of sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) from apoptotic cells might define where RhoA was activated. However, we found that although S1P is necessary for extrusion, its contribution does not require a localized source of S1P in the epithelium. We therefore propose a unified view of how RhoA is stimulated to engage neighbour cells for apoptotic extrusion. Here, tension-sensitive mechanotransduction is the proximate mechanism that activates RhoA specifically in the immediate neighbours of apoptotic cells, but this also must be primed by S1P in the tissue environment. Together, these elements provide a coincidence detection system that confers robustness on the extrusion response.

cell biology↗

bioRxiv2019

Viral fitness determines the magnitude of transcriptomic and epigenomic reprogramming of defense responses in plants

Although epigenetic factors may influence the expression of defense genes in plants, their role in antiviral responses and the impact of viral adaptation and evolution in shaping these interactions are still poorly explored. We used two isolates of turnip mosaic potyvirus (TuMV) with varying degrees of adaptation to Arabidopsis thaliana to address these issues. One of the isolates was experimentally evolved in the plant and presented increased load and virulence relative to the ancestral isolate. The magnitude of the transcriptomic responses were larger for the evolved isolate and indicated a role of innate immunity systems triggered by molecular patterns and effectors in the infection process. Several transposable elements (TEs) located in different chromatin contexts and epigenetic-related genes were also affected. Correspondingly, mutant plants having loss or gain of repressive marks were, respectively, more tolerant and susceptible to TuMV, with a more efficient response against the ancestral isolate. In wild-type plants both isolates induced similar levels of cytosine methylation changes, including in and around TEs and stress-related genes. Results collectively suggested that apart from RNA silencing and basal immunity systems, DNA methylation and histone modification pathways may also be required for mounting proper antiviral defenses in plants and that the effectiveness of this type of regulation strongly depends on the degree of viral adaptation to the host.

evolutionary biology↗

bioRxiv2019

Lokiarchaeon exhibits homoacetogenesis

The proposed Asgard superphylum of Archaea comprises the closest archaeal relatives of eukaryotes, whose genomes hold clues pertaining to the nature host cell that acquired the mitochondrion at the origin of eukaryotes1-4. Genomes of the Asgard candidate Phylum Candidatus Lokiarchaeota [Lokiarchaeon] suggest an acetogenic H2 -dependent lifestyle5 and mixotrophic capabilities6. However, data on the activity of Lokiarchaeon are currently lacking, and the ecology of the host cell that acquired the mitochondrion is debated4,7. Here, we show that in anoxic marine sediments underlying highly productive waters on the Namibian continental shelf Lokiarchaeon gene expression increases with depth below the seafloor, and was significantly different across a redox gradient spanning hypoxic to sulfidic conditions. Notably, Lokiarchaeon increased expression of genes involved in growth, carbohydrate metabolism, and the H2-dependent Wood-Ljungdahl (WLP) carbon fixation pathway under the most reducing (sulfidic) conditions. Quantitative stable isotope probing experiments revealed multiple populations of Lokiarchaeota utilizing both CO2 and diatomaceous extracellular polymeric substances (dEPS) as carbon sources over a 10-day incubation under anoxic conditions. This apparent anaerobic mixotrophic metabolism was consistent with the expression of Lokiarchaeon genes involved in transport and fermentation of sugars and amino acids. Remarkably, several Asgard populations were more enriched with 13C-dEPS compared to the community average, indicating a preference for dEPS as a growth substrate. The qSIP and gene expression data indicate a metabolism of \"Candidatus Lokiarchaeota\" similar to that of sugar fermenting homoacetogenic bacteria8, namely that Lokiarchaeon can couple fermentative H2 production from organic substrates with electron bifurcation and the autotrophic and H2-dependent WLP. Homoacetogenesis allows to access a wide range of substrates and relatively high ATP gain during acetogenic sugar fermentation8 thereby providing an ecological advantage for Lokiarchaeon in anoxic, energy limited settings.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2019

Dynamic architecture and regulatory implications of the miRNA network underlying the response to stress in melon

miRNAs are small RNAs that regulate mRNAs at both transcriptional and posttranscriptional level. In plants, miRNAs are involved in the regulation of different processes including development and stress-response. Elucidating how stress-responsive miRNAs are regulated is key to understand the global response to stress but also to develop efficient biotechnological tools that could help to cope with stress. Here, we describe a computational approach based on sRNA sequencing, transcript quantification and degradome data to analyze the accumulation, function and structural organization of melon miRNAs reactivated under seven biotic and abiotic stress conditions at two and four days post-treatment. Our pipeline allowed us to identify fourteen stress-responsive miRNAs (including evolutionary conserved such as miR156, miR166, miR172, miR319, miR398, miR399, miR894 and miR408) at both analyzed times. According to our analysis miRNAs were categorized in three groups showing a broad-, intermediate- or narrow- response range. miRNAs reactive to a broad range of environmental cues appear as central components in the stress-response network. The strictly coordinated response of miR398 and miR408 (broad response-range) to the seven stress treatments during the period analyzed here reinforces this notion. Although both, the amplitude and diversity of the miRNA-related response to stress changes during the exposition time, the architecture of the miRNA-network is conserved. This organization of miRNA response to stress is also conserved in rice and soybean supporting the conservation of miRNA-network organization in other crops. Overall, our work sheds light into how miRNA networks in plants organize and function during stress.

plant biology↗

bioRxiv2019

Zygomorphic flowers have fewer visitors

Botanists have long identified bilaterally symmetrical (zygomorphic) flowers with more specialized pollination interactions than radially symmetrical (actinomorphic) flowers. Zygomorphic flowers facilitate more precise contact with pollinators, guide pollinator behaviour, and exclude less effective pollinators. However, whether zygomorphic flowers are actually visited by a smaller subset of available pollinator species has not been broadly evaluated. We compiled 53,609 floral visitation records in 159 communities and classified the plants floral symmetry. Globally and within individual communities, plants with zygomorphic flowers are indeed visited by fewer species. At the same time, zygomorphic flowers share a somewhat larger proportion of their visitor species with other co-occurring plants, and have particularly high sharing with co-occurring plants that also have zygomorphic flowers. Visitation sub-networks for zygomorphic species also show differences that may arise from reduced visitor diversity, including greater connectance, greater web asymmetry, and lower coextinction robustness of both plants and visitor species -- but these changes do not necessarily translate to whole plant-visitor communities. These results provide context for widely documented associations between zygomorphy and diversification and imply that species with zygomorphic flowers may face greater risk of extinction due to pollinator loss.

ecology↗

bioRxiv2019

Are tropical reptiles really declining? A six-year survey of snakes in Drake Bay, Costa Rica, and the role of temperature, rain and light

Introductionstudies in the last two decades have found declining snake populations in both temperate and tropical sites, including informal reports from Drake Bay, Costa Rica.\n\nObjectiveto investigate if reports of decreasing snake populations in Drake Bay had a real basis, and if environmental factors, particularly temperature, rain and light, have played a role in that decrease.\n\nMethodswe worked at Drake Bay from 2012 through 2017 and made over 4000 h of transect counts. Using head flashlights we surveyed a transect covered by lowland tropical rainforest at an altitude of 12-38 m above sea level, near the Agujas River, mostly at 1930-2200 hours. We counted all the snakes that we could see along the transect.\n\nResultssnake counts increase from August to September and then decline rapidly. The May snakes/rainfall peaks coincide, but the second snake peak occurs one month before the rain peak; we counted more snakes in dry nights, with the exception of Imantodes cenchoa which was equally common despite rain conditions. We saw less Leptodeira septentrionalis on bright nights, but all other species were unaffected. Along the six years, the number of species with each diet type remained relatively constant, but the number of individuals declined sharply for those that feed on amphibians and reptiles. We report Rhadinella godmani, a highland species, at 12-38 m of altitude.\n\nConclusionnight field counts of snakes in Drake Bay, Costa Rica, show a strong decline from 2012 through 2017.

ecology↗